History of Economic Thought. History of economic doctrines: Textbook. manual for university students V and Kudryavtsev history of economic doctrines

History of economic teachings: minimum course: Textbook / S.A. Bartenev. - M.: Master, 2008. - 191 p.: 60x90 1/16. - (Minimum rate). (cover) ISBN 978-5-9776-0066-8 - Access mode: http://site/catalog/product/143471 read

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The textbook is a brief summary of the course on the history of economic doctrines. Extensive factual material is presented, key provisions and problems of economic concepts, theories, schools are highlighted, the logic of their emergence and development, and internal relationships are traced. The tables, diagrams, and information about famous economists contained in the appendices help to form a complete picture of the subject. Intended for students studying the history of economic doctrines - future economists, financiers, managers.

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Bartenev Sergey Alexandrovich

: Manual for the candidate exam / Bartenev S.A. - M.:Master, Scientific Research Center INFRA-M, 2016. - 271 pp.: 60x90 1/16 (Binding 7BC) ISBN 978-5-9776-0068-2 - Access mode: http://site/catalog/product/ 515459 read

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The textbook is intended for preparation for passing the candidate's exam in philosophy and history of economic science. The manual takes into account the specifics of the candidate exam and correlates philosophical and economic topics. The concept of science, the structure of scientific knowledge, and issues of scientific methodology are covered. In relation to the economic profile of dissertation research, the history of science (history of economic doctrines) and philosophical problems of a specific science (philosophy of economics) are considered. The technology for preparing dissertation research on economic topics is presented in detail.

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• KazNU named after. al-Farabi. Economics and business

Bartenev Sergey Alexandrovich

World economy: models, dynamics: Textbook / S.A. Bartenev. - M.: Master: Scientific Research Center INFRA-M, 2013. - 192 pp.: 60x88 1/16. - (Bachelor's degree). (cover) ISBN 978-5-9776-0285-3 - Access mode: http://site/catalog/product/425840 read

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The widespread use of diagrams, illustrations, and drawings in the manual is intended to facilitate understanding of the problems, directions, trends in the development of the world economy, the essence and interrelations of international economic relations.

The book is included in the collections:

• KazNU named after. al-Farabi. Economics and business

Bartenev Sergey Alexandrovich

History and philosophy of economic science: manual for the candidate exam / S.A. Bartenev; All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade. - M.: Master, 2008. - 271 p.: 60x90 1/16. (cover) ISBN 978-5-9776-0068-2 - Access mode: http://site/catalog/product/143849 read

978-5-9776-0068-2

Bartenev Sergey Alexandrovich

: textbook allowance / S.A. Bartenev. - M.: Master: INFRA-M, 2010. - 120 pp.: 60x88 1/16. (cover) ISBN 978-5-9776-0142-9 - Access mode: http://site/catalog/product/191706 read

978-5-9776-0142-9

Bartenev Sergey Alexandrovich

History of Economic Thought: Textbook / S.A. Bartenev. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Master: Scientific Research Center INFRA-M, 2013. - 480 pp.: 60x90 1/16. (hardcover) ISBN 978-5-9776-0001-9 - Access mode: http://site/catalog/product/390579 read

978-5-9776-0001-9

The textbook consistently describes the stages of formation and development of economic thought from antiquity to the present day. The main attention is paid to revealing the conceptual provisions of various theories and schools, their internal logic. Considerable space is devoted to the theoretical developments of Russian economists. The problems of the economy in transition are considered. The relationship between economic theories and economic practice is shown. The appendices provide concise characteristics of scientific schools, famous economists, logical diagrams and bibliography. For students and teachers of economic universities.

The book is included in the collections:

• KazNU named after. al-Farabi. Economics and business

Bartenev Sergey Alexandrovich

History of economic doctrines: course in diagrams: textbook allowance / S.A. Bartenev. - M.: Master: INFRA-M, 2017. - 120 pp.: 60x88 1/16. (cover) ISBN 978-5-9776-0142-9 - Access mode: http://site/catalog/product/854496 read

978-5-9776-0142-9

The course on the history of economic doctrines lays the foundations of economic education, a professional view of phenomena and processes occurring in real life. A special feature of the course is extensive factual material, various terms, titles of many works, names and dates. Presentation of the material in the form of diagrams for the course is intended to facilitate understanding of the logic of the birth and evolution of concepts, theories, views on economic processes, and to comprehend their dynamic and contradictory relationships. The diagrams can be used as an addition to a textbook on the history of economic doctrines (see, for example: Bartenev S.A. History of economic doctrines: a minimum course. M.: Master, 2008), as well as for a quick repetition of the course, preparation for the test and the exam.

The book is included in the collections:

• KazNU named after. al-Farabi. Economics and business

Bartenev Sergey Alexandrovich

History of Economic Thought: textbook / S.A. Bartenev; All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Master, 2007. - 478 pp.: 60x90 1/16. (hardcover) ISBN 978-5-9776-0001-9 - Access mode: http://site/catalog/product/121237 read

978-5-9776-0001-9

The textbook consistently describes the stages of formation and development of economic thought from antiquity to the present day. The main attention is paid to revealing the conceptual provisions of various theories and schools, their internal logic. Considerable space is devoted to the theoretical developments of Russian economists. The problems of the economy in transition are considered. The relationship between economic theories and economic practice is shown. The appendices provide laconic characteristics of scientific schools, famous economists, logical diagrams and bibliography. For students and teachers of economic universities.

The textbook sets out the course of the history of economic doctrines in accordance with the general plan of its previous three editions in 1996, 1997 and 1999. In order to display the features of the evolution of economic thought in Russia during the so-called “golden age” of domestic theoretical economics, the corresponding chapters of the textbook include fragments from the works of the most famous Russian economists of the 19th and early 20th centuries.
As additional educational and methodological material, the textbook contains the discipline program and methodological instructions for its study, test control questions on the discipline, sample topics coursework and final works of the Bachelor of Economics, an approximate list of examination (test) tickets for the course.
The textbook is intended for undergraduates, graduate students, researchers and anyone interested in the history of world and domestic economic thought.

The history of economic teachings is an integral link in the cycle of general educational disciplines in the direction of “economics”.
The subject of study of this discipline is the historical process of the emergence, development and change of economic ideas and views, which, as changes occur in the economy, science, technology and social sphere, is reflected in the theories of individual economists, theoretical schools, trends and trends.
The history of economic teachings dates back to the times of the ancient world, i.e. emergence of the first states. Since then and to this day, constant attempts have been made to systematize economic views into an economic theory accepted by society as a guide to action in the implementation of economic policy.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE 9
Section one INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC TEACHINGS
Chapter 1. Main objectives and structure of the course on the history of economic thought 12
§ 1. Why study the history of economic doctrines 12
§ 2. Directions and stages of development of economic thought 17
Appendix 23
Chapter 2. Problems of methodology in the course of the history of economic doctrines 32
§ 1. Methodology of economic science: problem statement 32
§ 2. Features of the basic methodological principles and methods of study in economic science 34
§ 3. The subject and method of economic science in retrospect 40
Appendix 45
Section two ECONOMIC TEACHINGS OF THE PRE-MARKET ECONOMY ERA
Chapter 3. Natural-economic economic thought of the ancient world and the Middle Ages 48
§ 1. Economic teachings of the ancient world 48
§ 2. Economic teachings of the Middle Ages 54
Chapter 4. Mercantilism - the first theoretical school of the period of the emergence of market economic relations 62
§ 1. Subject and method of studying mercantilists 62
§ 2. The concept of wealth of early and late mercantilism 65
§ 3. Historical significance of mercantilism 68
Section three ECONOMIC TEACHINGS OF THE ERA OF UNREGULATED MARKET RELATIONS
PART ONE. Classical political economy
Chapter 5. General features and stages of evolution of classical political economy 71
§ 1. The essence of classical political economy and the features of its subject and method 71
§ 2. General features of classical political economy 73
§ 3. The main stages of development of the classical school 80
Chapter 6. The Origin of Classical Political Economy 85
§ 1. Economic doctrine of W. Petty 85
§ 2. Economic doctrine of P. Boisguillebert 89
Chapter 7. Physiocracy - a specific movement of classical political economy 94
§ 1. Economic doctrine of F. Quesnay 94
§ 2. Economic doctrine of A. Turgot 99
Chapter 8. Adam Smith - the central figure of classical political economy 104
§ 1. Subject and method of study 106
§ 2. Features of theoretical developments 110
Appendix 117
Chapter 9. Classical political economy in the writings of the post-manufacturer Smithians 131
§ 1. Economic doctrine of D. Ricardo 132
§ 2. Economic doctrine of Zh.B. Seya 141
§ 3. Economic teaching of T. Malthus 148
Appendix 1 57
Chapter 10. Completion of classical political economy 166
§ 1. Economic doctrine of J.S. Millya 166
§ 2. Economic teachings of K. Marx 172
Appendix 1 89
PART TWO. Opponents of classical political economy
Chapter 11. The emergence of reform programs of romantic economists 208
§ 1. Economic doctrine of S. Sismondi 210
§ 2. Economic doctrine of P. Proudhon 219
§ 3. Historical significance of economic romanticism 227
Chapter 12. Socio-economic reform projects of utopian socialism 233
§ 1. Features of utopian socialism of the post-manufacturing period 233
§ 2. Economic views of R. Owen, C. Saint-Simon and C. Fourier 235
§ 3. Historical significance of utopian socialism 241
Appendix 244
Chapter 13. German historical school 252
§ 1. Prerequisites for the emergence of the historical school of Germany in the works of its predecessors and founders 252
§ 2. Methodological features of the German historical school 255
Application 260
PART THREE. Marginalism: the formation of a neoclassical direction of economic thought
Chapter 14. “Margin revolution” and its features 272
§ 1. What is marginalism and the “marginal revolution” 272
§ 2. Predecessors of marginalism. "Gossen's Laws" 275
§ 3. Features of the stages of the “margin revolution” 278
Chapter 15. The emergence of a subjective direction of economic thought as the first stage of the “marginal revolution” 284
§ 1. Economic doctrine of K. Menger 284
§ 2. Economic views of O. Böhm-Bawerk and F. Wieser 291
§ 3. Marginal concepts of W. Jevons and L. Walras 298
Appendix 304
Chapter 16. Formation of the neoclassical direction of economic thought as the second stage of the “marginal revolution” 310
§ 1. Economic doctrine of A. Marshall 310
§ 2. Economic doctrine of J.B. Clark 316
§ 3. The concept of general economic equilibrium by V. Pareto 322
Appendix 329
Section four ECONOMIC TEACHINGS OF THE AGE OF REGULATED MARKET RELATIONS
PART ONE. The emergence of theories of social control of society over the economy and a market with imperfect competition
Chapter 17. The emergence of a social-institutional trend in economic thought 332
§ 1. Prerequisites for the emergence and general characteristics of institutionalism 332
§ 2. Concepts of reforms of the founders and institutionalism 335
Chapter 18. Market theories with imperfect competition 343
§ 1. The theory of monopolistic competition by E. Chamberlin 344
§ 2. Economic theory of imperfect competition J. Robinson 352
PART TWO. Theory of state regulation of the economy
Chapter 19. Keynesianism 355
§ 1. Economic doctrine of J.M. Keynes 356
§ 2. Neo-Keynesian doctrines of state regulation of the economy 363
Chapter 20. Neoliberalism 367
§ 1. The concept of social market economy 368
§ 2. Chicago school of monetarism 371
PART THREE. The evolution of modern doctrines of economic thought
Chapter 21. The concept of neoclassical synthesis 375
§ 1. The origin of the concept of “neoclassical synthesis” 375
§ 2. New versions of the concept of “neoclassical synthesis” 376
Chapter 22. Olympus of modern economic thought 380
§ 1. About the Nobel Prize laureates in economics 380
§ 2. Brief outline of the history of economic doctrines in the textbook “Economics” by P. Samuelson 387
§ 3. “Wind of Change” by P. Samuelson 388
NOTES 392
EDUCATIONAL AND METHODICAL MATERIALS 423
1. WORKSHOP PLANS 423
2. TEST QUESTIONS ON DISCIPLINE 441
3. SAMPLE TOPIC AND METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE AUTHOR OF COURSE WORKS AND GRADUATE THESIS OF BACHELOR OF ECONOMICS 454
4. SAMPLE LIST OF EXAMINATION (TEST) TICKETS FOR THE COURSE “HISTORY OF ECONOMIC STUDIES” 458
DICTIONARY OF BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS 462
INDEX OF NAMES 471

History of Economic Thought

Introduction

The history of economic doctrines is only part of the history of economic thought.

The history of economic thought begins from those time immemorial, when people first thought about the goals of their economic activities, the ways and means of achieving them, the relationships that develop between people in the process and as a result of the extraction and distribution of goods, the exchange of produced products and services.

Economic thought is an extremely broad concept. These are ideas that exist in the mass consciousness, and religious assessments, and prescriptions concerning economic relations, and theoretical designs of scientists, and economic programs of political parties... The sphere of economic thought is diverse: here are the general laws of the economy, and the peculiarities of the economy of individual industries, and problems location of production, and money circulation, and the efficiency of capital investments, and the tax system, and methods of accounting for income and expenses, and the history of the economy, and economic legislation - you can’t list everything.

In this entire complex set, it is possible, with a certain convention, to single out economic doctrines - theoretical concepts reflecting the basic laws of economic life, describing the relationships between its subjects, identifying the driving forces and significant factors in the creation, distribution and exchange of goods.

Economic teachings are much younger than economic thought. The history of economic doctrines begins in the 16th century; its origins are inextricably linked with the formation of a capitalist commodity economy.

This course contains short description the most important theoretical positions and methodological guidelines of various scientific schools, which left a significant mark in the history of economic teachings.

Section 1. The formation of economic thought.

Topic 1.1. Subject of the history of economic science

At first glance, defining the subject of the history of economic doctrines is not particularly difficult: it is a chronological description, including comments on the most productive attempts to create more and more accurate and correct economic views.

However, this understanding of economic science requires clarification. First of all, over the centuries the concept has changed subject economic theory. In the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, the subject of economics was the study of "the nature and causes of the wealth of nations." In the last quarter of the 19th century, economics began to be seen as the science of human behavior in pursuit of specific goals and the use of limited resources. In the 20th century, economic theories became more sophisticated. Statistical and analytical methods have emerged that can solve problems that were inaccessible to their predecessors.

It is important to understand the methods of cognition of economic science, which allow us to highlight the essence in various economic theories, look at them from different angles, and try to understand how this or that theory would manifest itself in different historical eras. You need to know that the main methods are:

1. The method of scientific abstraction - expresses deep, cause-and-effect relationships and patterns of economic development. This is a movement from the abstract to the concrete, from the general to the particular.

2. Dialectical - emergence, origin, maturity, death of economic phenomena, struggle of opposites, resolution of contradictions, etc.

3. Analysis and synthesis - identifying the most characteristic features in the essence of phenomena, formulating laws and patterns.

4. The induction method is the derivation of a theory from facts and observations.

5. Deduction method - formulating hypotheses and confirming them with facts.

There are also systemic, historical, logical and other methods.

Topic 1.2. Economic teachings of the ancient world.

The first large centers of civilization arose in the territory of Ancient Asia. Slavery achieved significant development, and the first slave states arose. The most significant of them are:

Kingdom of Babylon - Code of King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). The code of laws of King Hammurabi gives an idea that the division of society into slaves and slave owners was recognized as natural and eternal. Slaves were equated to the property of slave owners, and concern for the protection of private property and the development of monetary relations was reflected. The basis of the economy of the Babylonian kingdom was subsistence farming.

Ancient China - Confucianism, a teaching created by Confucius (551-479 BC). He proceeded from the fact that the basis of the social structure is the divine principle. Confucius considered the division of society into “nobles”, who make up the upper class, and “common people”, whose lot is physical labor. His teachings are aimed at strengthening the emerging slave system, strengthening the authority of the state and the power of the supreme ruler of China.

Ancient India - treatise "Arthashastra", author Kautilya (late 4th - early 3rd century BC). The treatise talks about social inequality, justifies and consolidates it. The main branch of the economy was agriculture, the construction of irrigation systems, crafts and trade developed, and the idea of ​​active government intervention in the economy was pursued. If a resident of India became a slave, then he could have his own slaves.

Ancient Greece - the greatest role in the formation of the teachings of the Ancient

Greece was played by Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle.

Xenophon (430-355 BC) student of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. His economic views are set out in his work “Domostroy,” which contained numerous advice to slave owners, whose lot was managing the economy, exploiting slaves, but not physical labor. He considered agriculture to be the main branch of the economy. He was the first to notice that the division of labor contributes to the prosperity of production. Crafts and trade were not considered worthy activities.

Plato (427-347 BC) first expressed the idea of ​​the inevitability of dividing the state into two parts: rich and poor. Only foreigners could be slaves. He considered agriculture to be the main branch of the economy, but he also approved of crafts. Plato considered slaves to be the main productive force.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) is known as the educator of Alexander the Great. His views on slavery coincide with those of Xenophon and Plato. Aristotle's merit is his attempt to penetrate into the essence of economic phenomena. He divided wealth into natural and monetary. He considered the natural to be true, because wealth has its limits, but monetary wealth has no such limits. Based on this, he introduced the concepts of “economy” and “chresmatics” and explained the need for the circulation of money in the economic sphere.

Ancient Rome completed the development of economic thought Ancient world, reflecting the next stage in the evolution of slavery.

Cato the Elder (234-149 BC) considered the issues of keeping slaves and methods of their exploitation. He argued for the need for harsh exploitation of slaves. His ideal was subsistence farming, but trade was not excluded.

Varro (116-27 BC) reflected more advanced forms of slavery, in which slave owners placed their affairs in the hands of managers. His concerns are related to strengthening subsistence farming.

Columella (1st century AD) reflected the crisis of slavery: the low productivity of slave labor, during

Topic 1.3. Economic thought of the era of feudalism.

The Middle Ages covers a large historical period: in Western Europe - from the 5th century to the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries; in Russia - from the 9th century to the reform of 1861.

The politics of the Middle Ages were associated with the defense of the feudal order, according to which subsistence farming was considered a virtue, and trade and usury were not encouraged. The church had exclusive rights, so the economic thought of this period was clothed in a religious shell. The originality of economic thought was clearly reflected in the teachings of Catholicism. The Church strengthened its power, and possessing enormous wealth and land ownership, justified the rule of serfdom and defended its positions with the help of church rules - canons.

Played a huge role in the formation of the teachings of the era of feudalism Thomas Aquinas(1225-1275), who created the extensive work “Summa Theologies”. His teachings are still widely used by the Vatican. He considered such issues as social inequality, fair price, property, interest, profit, etc.

Aquinas argued that people are born different by nature, therefore peasants should engage in physical labor, and the privileged classes should engage in spiritual activities.

IN private property he saw the basis of the economy and believed that man has the right to appropriate wealth. Consequently, property necessary to satisfy needs is natural and necessary.

fair price On the one hand, it consists of the correct price, i.e. production costs, on the other hand, it must guarantee the exchange participants an existence worthy of their rank.

Profit, received by merchants, can be considered as payment for their labor.

Aquinas tried to find a compromise regarding the collection percent, which was prohibited by the church. It justifies the interest; it is a reward for the fact that the creditor is deprived of possible income from the use of his funds.

The economic thought of the Russian state also existed in close connection with the religious views of people. Information about that time can be obtained from chronicles, charters of princes, and church literature. The first set of laws is “ Russian truth"(11th-13th century), reflecting the practical level achieved by economic thought by this time. It recorded the process of feudalization of the state, gave a legal definition of natural economy, contained norms of trade and protection of the interests of Russian merchants, the right to collect taxes, duties in kind, etc.

The economic interests of the landed nobility in the 16th century were expressed Ermolai Erasmus in labor " Ruler" This is the first economic and political treatise in Russia, which sets out a system of measures to solve the main issues of that time. Much attention is paid to the question of the situation of the peasant masses. Erasmus proposed to reduce or exempt them from monetary payments and transfer them to the shoulders of the urban population. He proposed a reform in the field of land ownership - the distribution of land to peasants and service people.

The first Russian economist is called I. T. Pososhkova. His book " About poverty and wealth"is the first work entirely devoted to the problems of economic development of Russia. The main idea of ​​the book is to eliminate poverty and increase wealth.

He saw the main reasons for the country's economic backwardness in the difficult situation of the peasants and the underdevelopment of the financial system. He condemned capitation tax, because it did not take into account differences in the economic status of payers.

He attached primary importance trade: defended the interests of merchants, proposed to establish firm and uniform prices for goods, control the progress of trade, and instead of many duties, establish one - in the amount of 10%. He forbade the export of raw materials and strictly selected exported goods.

Pososhkov advocated the development of agriculture, industry, factories, and respect for nature and its resources.

He did not identify wealth with money, but believed that “ a state is rich when its people are rich ».

The reform activities of Peter 1 were reflected in Pososhkov’s work.

Topic 1.4. Mercantilism.

The first school of economics was mercantilism, which became widespread in many countries until the end of the 17th century. He expressed the interests of merchant capital, and wealth was identified with gold and silver. The source of wealth was foreign trade. The state was supposed to facilitate the influx of gold and silver from abroad. In its development, mercantilism went through two stages: early and developed.

Early mercantilism- monetary system, characterized by the concept of monetary balance. Its prominent representative is William Stafford (England). According to this concept, the task of accumulating monetary wealth in the country was solved mainly by administrative measures that ensured strict regulation of money circulation and foreign trade. Monetarists, considering gold as a treasure, absolute form wealth, were looking for ways to bring it in from abroad and retain it within the country. The export of money outside the borders of this state was strictly prohibited, the activities of foreign merchants were strictly controlled, the import of foreign goods was limited, high duties were established, etc.

Developed mercantilism- manufacturing system, differs in ways of accumulating wealth. Instead of administrative methods of accumulation, economic methods come to the fore. Mercantilists refused to ban the export of gold outside the country. They outlined measures to stimulate foreign trade, which was supposed to ensure a constant flow of gold into the country. The basic rule of foreign trade was the excess of exports over imports. To ensure its implementation, the mercantilists cared about the development of manufacturing production, internal trade, the growth of not only exports, but also the import of goods, the purchase of raw materials abroad, rational use money. A ban on the export of raw materials was maintained, the import of a number of goods, especially luxury goods, was limited, high import duties were established, etc. The mercantilists demanded that the royal government encourage the development of national industry and trade, the production of goods for export, maintain high customs duties, build and strengthen the fleet, and expand external expansion.

Mercantilism in individual countries had its own characteristics:

England: mature mercantilism is represented by T. Men. T. Men was a major businessman of his time, one of the directors of the East India Company. He considered strict regulation of monetary circulation harmful and advocated the free export of coins. His rule: “Sell more to foreign countries than buy from them.” Men believed that the ban on the export of money abroad hampered the demand for English goods, and an excess of money in the country led to rising prices.

Due to the fact that England was ahead of other countries in the world in its capitalist development, the mercantilist program turned out to be the most effective here. Its implementation contributed to the creation of conditions for the transformation of England into the first industrial power in the world.

France: A. Montchretien created the work “Treatise of Political Economy”, in which he recommended active government intervention in the economy. He considered merchants to be the most useful class, and trade was the main purpose of crafts. He advised strengthening manufactories, creating craft schools, and improving the quality of products. The doctrine of mercantilism was persistently enforced in the second half of the 17th century. the period of the reign of Cardinal Richelieu (1624-1642) and the activities of the Minister of Finance of Louis XIV Colbert (1661-1683). Efforts were made to create manufacturing production, conditions that contributed to its growth (providing loans, various benefits to industrialists and traders, attracting foreign craftsmen, etc.) France built a fleet, created colonial companies, and launched foreign trade activities. With the help of mercantilist policies, Colbert tried to overcome the country's socio-economic lag and catch up with England.

Spain: lingered at the stage of monetarism, according to which the export of gold and silver abroad was strictly persecuted.

Germany: The evolution of mercantilism in Germany, in addition to the factors noted above, was influenced by the political fragmentation of the country. The measures of early mercantilism were combined here with economic policies typical of feudal principalities. They only aggravated the economic chaos that reigned in the country, generated by fragmentation.

Italy: A. Serra published a “Short Treatise”, which reflected the stage of mature mercantilism. A. Serra criticized monetarism. He advocated for the development of handicraft production, encouragement of hard work and ingenuity of the population, the development of trade, and the implementation of favorable economic policy government. However, mercantilism did not produce results due to the backwardness of the country's socio-economic development.

Russia: mercantilism was very specific. The predominantly agricultural nature of the country posed problems that did not fit into the concept of mercantilism. I. Pososhkov and A. Ordyn-Nashchekin developed a number of reforms that significantly moved Russia forward.

Section 2. Classical economic school.

Topic 2.1. Founders of the classical school.

The classical school is a new stage in the development of economic science. In contrast to mercantilism, the emphasis is on production as the basis of the economy. Trade is relegated to the background. Two countries took part in the development of the classical direction - England and France. England in the 17th century, France in the 18th century. The founder of this trend in England was W. Petty, in France - P. Boisguillebert. The English classical school considered both agriculture and industry important, the French - agriculture.

W. Petty initially shared the mercantilists’ thesis about the accumulation of gold and silver in the country. He distinguished between natural and market prices. He believed that money expresses a measure of value. The value of a commodity produced by a person in a certain time is equal to the value of the amount of gold and silver that another person can mine, transport and mint into coins from in the same time. Later, he advocated the labor theory of value.

The founder of this direction was P. Boisguillebert. He criticized mercantilism, considering it to be the culprit in the country's difficult economic situation. Boisguillebert considered money to be the main reason for this condition. The only function of money, in his opinion, is the function of exchange, and the value of a product is created by labor, regardless of whether the product is sold.

Topic 2.2. Physiocratism.

The Physiocrats school formed in the mid-18th century and translates as “power of nature.” The leader of the school of physiocrats was F. Quesnay. He sees the material side of wealth: exchange and industry cannot create wealth, because trade only moves the product, and industry only transforms the substance, adding nothing. Matter grows where nature works. The net income of society is created only in agriculture. According to Quesnay, society was divided into 3 classes:

Owners - nobility, clergy, king, officials;

Farmers are capitalists and wage workers;

The barren are the commercial and industrial population of the country.

He presented a model of the relationship between these classes in the form of an economic table. This model is extremely simplified: it reflects only simple reproduction, i.e. reproduction that repeats from cycle to cycle unchanged.

He completed the teachings of the physiocrats A. R. J. Turgot, who brought the physiocratic system to its most mature form. He considered the reasons for the emergence of wage labor, industrial and commercial profits, wages, etc.

Topic 2.3. English classical school.

The leader of this school is A. Smith. He is the author of the book " Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations", which consists of 5 books. Smith reviewed division of labor and showed its influence on the growth of labor productivity.

Money he considered it a commodity that can be exchanged for any other commodity. Only gold and silver coins can be in circulation.

He was the first to define cost, as the sum of two types of income: wages, profit and rent.

Capital is the sum of the means of production. It is divided into constant and variable.

Salary- this is the amount of money that a hired worker receives for his work.

Profit- this is the result of the unpaid labor of the worker, appropriated by the capitalist.

Rent- the result of a worker’s unpaid labor, appropriated by the landowner.

Work can be productive or unproductive. The result of productive labor is a material product, so it is exchanged for capital. The result of unproductive labor is services, so it is exchanged for income.

Profit decreases if the price of one product increases; and does not change if the price of all goods increases.

D. Ricardo supplemented and corrected some provisions of A. Smith’s work in the book “ Beginnings of political economy and taxation", which consists of 32 chapters.

He criticized A. Smith for an inaccurate definition cost and believed that value is primary and cannot be determined by income.

He carried out the analysis money circulation and came to the conclusion that not only gold and silver, but also paper money could be in circulation if their quantity was limited. An increase in paper money in circulation may lead to an increase in prices.

Salary- this is the price of labor and it is related to the movement of the working population. It can be natural (equal to the cost of necessary consumer goods) or market (equal to the amount of money received by workers).

Capital and profit he characterizes similarly to Smith, but believes that profit decreases if the price of one product increases; and if the price of all goods increases.

Topic 2.3. Utopian socialism.

Utopian socialism went through 2 stages of development: early (15th century) and late (18th-19th centuries). Utopia is “nowhere”, i.e. a place that doesn't exist.

Representatives early utopian socialism were T. Mohr and T. Campanella. T. More is the greatest humanist of England, the right hand of the king, the author of the book “Utopia”. In it, he describes a non-existent city in which there is universal equality and happiness. For this book T. Mor was executed. T. Campanella, author of the book “City of the Sun,” spent 27 years in dungeons. The ideas in this book are very similar to those expressed by T. More. But neither More nor Campanella knew how to achieve such a future.

Representatives late utopian socialism are: A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, R. Owen.

A. Saint-Simon considered consistent historicism, i.e. believed that each subsequent system should be better than the previous one. The feudal system is better than the slave system, the capitalist system is better than the feudal system. But the capitalist system has not justified itself, so it must be replaced by the industrial system. At the present stage, industrialists should be in power, not the bourgeoisie. Therefore, a new system is needed - industrialism. In the new society, large industry will be controlled from a single center and function according to a single plan. Private property is preserved provided that the owners comply with the general plan. Capitalists must voluntarily transfer their funds to the people.

S. Fourier condemns capitalism for the disparity of interests between the rich minority and the impoverished majority. Therefore, a new system is needed, the basis of which will be small self-governing communities of up to 2000 people. The main activity of the community will be agriculture, and industry will complement it. People will change jobs several times a day. All property will become public. People will constantly change houses, furniture and other things. The day needed to organize the phalanx will be provided by the capitalists, who will become members of the community. The capitalists themselves will become members of the community and will obey the general plan.

R. Owen believed that value under capitalism is determined by money, not labor. Money does not reflect labor costs and workers do not receive true rewards. Therefore, money must be abolished and replaced with receipts, which will indicate the labor costs of workers, and with which it will be possible to purchase any a product of equal labor cost. Owen conducted an experiment in a factory in Scotland and proved that it was possible to significantly improve the lives of workers. The new system will be based on common labor, common property, equality in rights and responsibilities.

Topic 2.4. Marxist political economy

This doctrine was created by K. Marx with the direct participation of his friend and comrade-in-arms F. Engels.

Marx drew from three scientific sources: the English classical political economy of Smith and Ricardo, the German classical philosophy of Hegel, and utopian socialism. He borrowed the labor theory of value from Smith and Ricardo. The second - the ideas of dialectics and materialism, the third - the concept of class struggle, elements of the sociological structure of society.

When feudalism collapsed and a “free” capitalist society emerged, it became clear that this was a new system of exploitation and oppression of working people. He criticized capitalism, dreamed of destroying it, but could not find a class in society capable of overthrowing the oppressors. Marx’s genius lies in the fact that, before others, he was able to see the “locomotives of history” in revolutions, and was able to formulate the doctrine of class struggle. People will always be victims of deception or self-deception in politics if they do not learn from certain phrases, promises, etc. see the interests of certain classes.

The development of productive forces determines the change in production relations and thereby socio-economic formations. But, developing productive forces to colossal proportions, capitalism becomes increasingly entangled in contradictions that are insoluble for it. These irreconcilable contradictions between the social nature of production and private capitalist appropriation make themselves felt in periodic crises of overproduction, when capitalists, not finding effective demand, are forced to stop production, drive workers out of the gates of enterprises, and destroy productive forces. This also means that capitalism is fraught with a revolution designed to replace capitalist ownership of the means of production with socialist ownership.

That. Communist society must inevitably replace capitalism. Communist society in its development will go through 2 stages: socialism and communism. At the first stage, private property will disappear, and distribution will be carried out according to labor. In the second, commodity-money relations will disappear, and distribution according to labor will be replaced by distribution according to needs.

"Capital"

First volume called "", it was published in 1867.

1. Product- has properties: satisfies needs, exchanges, natural properties (signs, characteristics), social properties (relations between people).

2. Transforming money into capital:

T-D-T’ sale of goods for the purchase of another product, i.e. satisfaction of needs. Money in this case is an intermediary.

M-T-M’ general formula for the movement of capital, i.e. goods are purchased in order to sell them at a higher price. Money in this case is the goal of production.

3. Production of surplus value- value is created by labor. Labor is dual in nature: on the one hand, it is concrete labor, as a result of which a specific product is produced, on the other, it is abstract labor, i.e. expenditure of effort and energy, and this makes the products of labor comparable.

4. Constant and variable capital:

Constant capital- this is the part of capital that does not change its value during the production process. These are raw materials, materials, etc.

Variable capital- this is the part of capital that changes its value during the production process. This is work.

5. Rate of surplus value- m. Npr depends on variable capital: Npr = m / V. Labor is divided into necessary and surplus.

Necessary Labor(working time) - part of the day during which the reproduction process occurs, i.e. the worker spends on himself.

Surplus labor(working hours) - outside the required working hours, i.e. part of the day during which a worker produces surplus value.

6. Working day length:

The working day cannot fall below the required working time, and cannot be higher than 24 hours. The boundaries of the working day are set between these two limits: adults - 15 hours (from 5.30 to 20.30), teenagers - 12 hours, children - 8 hours. Only men work the night shift.

7. Relative surplus value- necessary + surplus labor. Absolute achieved by lengthening the working day. If labor is paid according to the value of labor, then surplus value can be obtained either through an absolute lengthening of the working day or through an increase in labor productivity.

8. Transformation of surplus value into capital:

Surplus value can only be converted into capital because it contains the same elements - labor costs. Surplus value is divided into capital and income, i.e. accumulates.

Second volume is called " Capital circulation process", it was published in 1885.

Capital is a value that brings surplus value. This volume examines industrial capital.

1. Metamorphoses of capital and its circulation:

D-T...P-T'-D' with money, goods are purchased in the form of labor and means of production. Then the movement of capital is interrupted and the production process begins. As a result, a new type of product is obtained and exchanged for money of a larger mass, and the movement of capital is resumed. Added value appears. That. There are 3 forms of capital - money, commodity and production.

2. Fixed and working capital:

Basic- constantly participates in the production process. Negotiable- in one production cycle.

2. Production costs- production, storage costs, transport costs.

3. Capital turnover:

Capital turnover time- this is the time from the moment it is advanced into production until the moment it is returned in the same form. Fixed and working capital are included only in the production form of capital. How more revolutions makes capital, the higher the surplus value.

4. Reproduction and circulation of social capital:

Social capital is formed as a result of the interweaving of individual capitals. Social capital - W = C + V + m = K + p. It consists of the production of means of production and the production of means of consumption.

Third volume called " The process of capitalist production as a whole", was published in 1894 by F. Engels.

1. The capitalist receives profit because he sold something for which he did not pay. Profit is the excess over the advanced capital. Profit is the converted value of surplus value. Npr = m / V, and profit P = m / C + V. The same surplus value can create more or less profit (depending on the capitalist’s approach).

2. The influence of wages on production prices:

As wages increase, production costs increase and profits decrease. However, if the rate of profit is reduced, then the amount of profit may increase due to the unpaid labor of workers. If the portion of constant capital increases relative to variable capital, then the rate of surplus value will decrease, or the amount of unpaid labor will increase.

3. Trading capital:

Takes 2 forms - commodity-trade and money-trade, i.e. goods are either sold or bought.

4. Loan capital:

With the development of trade, the basis of credit expands, and new means of payment arise - bills of exchange. They form trade money. Lending is about earning interest.

5. Land capital- rent:

Differential rent 1- excess profit received from the best plots of land.

Differential rent 2- excess profit received from the best plots of land through capital investment.

Absolute rent- rent received by all landowners, because the worst areas are also profitable.

Volume four called " The theory of surplus value", it was published in 1905-1910 and is an independent book.

This volume contains criticism of previous economic teachings - A. Smith, D. Ricardo and others.

Genesis capitalist land rent: industry destroys labor power, and agriculture destroys the power of the earth.

Marx's triune formula: capital - profit, land - rent, labor - wages.

Section 3. Neoclassical direction.

Topic 3.1. The emergence of the neoclassical movement.

The neoclassical movement or marginalism appeared in the mid-19th century and is associated with the introduction of the concept of “marginal utility.” This made it possible to create a new tool for analyzing economic reality using mathematical methods. Instead of dynamic problems of the classical school, static problems appeared that allowed mathematical formulations and solutions. At the center of this theory is the behavior of an individual consumer, maximizing his utility from the consumption of goods, and an individual producer, maximizing his profit.

The founder of this direction is Austrian school. The leader of this school K. Menger developed " Table of marginal utilities of goods».

Unit Benefits

The starting point of the analysis is a person’s attitude towards goods, manifested in the sphere of personal consumption. The subject of analysis is consumer assessments and consumer choice. The value of any good is determined by its ability to satisfy human needs. Value does not depend on the amount of benefit provided, but on the importance of the need that this benefit satisfies. The goods are indicated horizontally in descending order of their usefulness. Vertical - units of consumption of these goods. At the intersection, each unit of each good is valued. He introduced the concepts of “demand price” and “supply price”, analyzed a person’s attitude towards goods, the value of goods, etc. ABOUT.

Böhm-Bawerk introduced additions to the table - not all benefits can be satisfied in stages, and also identified objective and subjective value, formulated a model of market price, developed a theory of capital, as direct and indirect methods of determining needs, etc.

American school- its leader D. Clark. He formulated 3 universal laws operating in the economic sphere in any historical era:

1. The law of marginal utility - each class of buyers spends its money first on the most important products, then on less important ones. Those. marginal utility is the utility of the good that a given class can buy with the last unit of money.

2. The law of specific productivity - 4 factors are always involved in production - labor, land, capital and entrepreneurial activity. The owner of the corresponding factor owns his contribution - labor brings wages, land - rent, capital - interest, entrepreneurial activity - profit.

3. The law of diminishing returns - an increase in any factor of production while the rest remains unchanged gives a diminishing increase in output.

Lausanne school- its leaders are L. Walras and Pareto. L. Walras was the first to develop a closed mathematical model of general economic equilibrium. V. Pareto improved this model and introduced the concept of “preference”. The statement that a given good is more useful than another means that a person prefers this good to another. He owns an assessment of equilibrium, called the “Pareto Optimum” - this is a situation in which it is impossible to improve the well-being of at least one subject without compromising the well-being of another.

Cambridge school- leader - A. Marshall. He synthesized the ideas of the English classical school and the concept of marginalists. He views market equilibrium as the equality of supply and demand prices. He introduced the concept of price elasticity of demand - it expresses the measure by which the volume of demand increases or decreases when demand decreases or decreases. The dynamics of production costs depends on changes in production volumes. Marshall paid much attention to the time factor - in the short term, prices are decisively influenced by changes in demand, in the long term - by changes in supply. Marshall's contribution to economic theory is so great that it is called the "Marshallian revolution."

Topic 3.2. Economic thought of Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century.

M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky adhered to the social direction, which is based on the theory of distribution. He depicted distribution in the form of a struggle between various social groups for the “division” of the social product. The most important distribution category is salary. Its magnitude is regulated on the one hand by labor productivity, and on the other by the strength of the working class. He compared the accumulation of loan capital to the accumulation of steam in a cylinder. M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky was the first to formulate the law of the investment theory of cycles and anticipated Keynes’s idea of ​​“savings-investment”. The phases of the industrial cycle are determined by the laws of investment.

N. D. Kondratiev worked on the problems of national economic planning, drew up the first plans, conducted market research, studied the objective characteristics and trends of a market economy. He is known to world science as the author of the theory of large cycles of economic conditions. N. D. Kondratyev studied data for European countries and the USA. The observation period was 140 years. During this time there were 2.5 completed large cycles. N.D. Kondratiev is the only one who managed to provide evidence of the existence of large cycles and they were named after him “Kondratiev’s Big Waves.”

A. V. Chayanov was the leader of the organizational and production school. The main subject of his research was peasant farming. He put forward a plan for the reconstruction of the agricultural sector: transfer of land to the ownership of the working peasantry; introduction of labor ownership of land; transfer of landowners' farms to the state; introduction of a single agricultural tax. A.V. Chayanov opposed the equal distribution of land to peasants. His major achievement is the theory of differential optima of agricultural enterprises. The optimum is achieved where, other things being equal, the cost of the resulting products will be the lowest, i.e. depending on natural and climatic conditions. Chayanov proposed socialization of the land - the destruction of land ownership. This means a revolution in land ownership and possible coexistence with the bourgeois system. He saw the sustainability of peasant farms in the fact that the peasant does not pursue profit and rent, but strives for economic independence.

V. K. Dmitriev compiled a system of linear equations, with the help of which he expressed simultaneous production costs and thereby, for the first time in world literature, gave a way to express total costs. He came to the conclusion that the level of socially necessary costs is determined under the worst conditions. He introduced the concept of “technological coefficients of product costs,” which formed the basis of V. Leontiev’s “input-output” method.

E. E. Slutsky adhered to the mathematical and economic direction. One of his important works is “Towards a Theory of a Balanced Consumer Budget,” in which he made a number of conclusions about the conditions for a stable consumer budget. Slutsky first raised the question of the need for a special science - praxeology, which would develop the principles of rational behavior of people in various conditions.

L. V. Kantorovich, a Nobel laureate in economics, showed that any economic problems of distribution can be considered as problems of maximizing a certain value under certain restrictions. He created linear programming methods that are convenient for many types of calculations in economics. He showed the existence of dual estimates in linear programming problems - it is impossible to simultaneously minimize costs and maximize results.

Section 4. Modern economic theory.

Topic 4.1. Institutionalism.

Institutionalism originated at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in the United States. Its founder was T. Veblen. In his Theory of the Leisure Class, he opposed the idea that each individual strives for the greatest profit. Man is not a calculating machine, and in addition to benefits, there are also customs, traditions, and mores.

The period of the early 20th century was marked by the rapid growth of corporations. In this regard, T. Veblen added another group to the 3rd classes of society - technical specialists.

T. Veblen believes that the era of a market economy covers 2 stages:

On the first, property and real power are with entrepreneurs;

On the second, there is a split between business and industry. Business ends up in the hands of the leisure class, which lends its capital rather than invests it in production.

In his opinion, the modern economy does not function on the basis of supply and demand. Large firms are involved in speculative operations, increasing their purchasing power through credit, rather than expanding production. As a result, credit pyramids arise, a decline in business activity occurs, and the bankruptcy of many firms occurs due to demands for immediate repayment of loans.

D. Commons proposed a theory of transactions, according to which a transaction was a trinity: conflict, interrelation of interests, conflict resolution.

W. Mitchell was a researcher of economic cycles.

D. Galbraith devoted his attention to the industrial system, corporations, the role of the state, etc. He was the first to substantiate the thesis about replacing the power of the market with decisions of managers. He considers it necessary to limit the power of corporations, military concerns, and military department apparatuses. He developed reforms aimed at strengthening the role of the state; retraining of people left without work; reduction in military spending, etc.

R. Coase (50s of the 20th century) considered the problem of a “continuous market”, i.e. interaction between government regulation and market economy. He opposed attempts to find market failures and encourage government intervention in the economy.

Topic 4.2. Keynesianism.

Since the mid-30s, the development of economic theory was influenced by the theory of D. Keynes. In 1936, D. Keynes’s book “The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money” was published. Keynesianism gained worldwide fame for its rationale for government intervention in the economy. His theory developed after the global crisis “Great Depression” and was a “lifeline” for the economies of many countries. The focus is on 2 problems: demand and unemployment.

Theory of demand: before D. Keynes, it was believed that all produced goods would be sold, but D. Keynes believes that a person may not purchase goods, but save his money. D. Keynes identifies 3 ways to regulate demand:

Monetary policy - stimulating demand through lowering the interest rate and influencing the desire for liquidity,

Budget policy - organization of investments. The lack of private investment must be regulated by the state,

The policy of protectionism - closing borders to foreign competitors expands the conditions for domestic production.

The theory of employment and unemployment: with an increase in employment, national income increases, and therefore consumption increases. But consumption is growing more slowly than income, because... the propensity to save increases. That. effective demand decreases, and this affects production volumes. A decrease in production volumes entails an increase in unemployment. Keynes identified frictional, voluntary and involuntary unemployment caused by a decrease in demand.

Multiplier theory: investment in any industry entails an increase in employment, income and consumption not only in this industry, but also in related industries. In turn, changes in these industries generate growth in employment, income and consumption in second-tier industries. A multiplier effect occurs. The size of the multiplier depends on the share of consumption in income. The main problem should be considered the transformation of the saved portion into investment.

Topic 4.3. Modern stage development of economic doctrines.

Monetarism- appeared in the mid-80s and became a battlefield between the followers of D. Keynes and the monetarists, whose leader was M. Friedman. Monetarists argue that government intervention in the economy according to Keynesian recipes is harmful in the long run because the action of market regulators is blocked. The regulatory role of the state should be limited to the sphere of monetary circulation. The condition for economic stability is the constant, gradual pumping of the money supply into circulation.

Neoliberalism has a 3-century history and is in constant battle with the concept of government intervention in the economy. By the end of the 19th century, he lost his position, but by the 30-40s of the 20th century he again gained strength in the person of L. von Mises and F. von Hayek. L. von Mises considered the division of labor, private property and exchange to be the foundations of civilization. And the regulated economy turns into a field of arbitrariness of government officials. F. von Hayek believes that only the market is able to quickly respond to fluctuations in supply and demand. And centralized planning will always be late. In some studies their direction is called neoliberalism. But most scientists call neoliberalism another branch of economic liberalism, the leader of which was V. Eucken, and one of the representatives was L. Erhard. The function of the state, in their opinion, is that of a judge to ensure that the rules are followed.

Supply theory appeared at the turn of the 70-80s. A major role in the development of this theory belongs to the American Enterprise Institute. Fluctuations in economic growth rates, unemployment and inflation, in their opinion, were provoked by increased government spending. In practice, this theory did not justify itself.

Rational Expectations Theory it is a product of the latest evolution of neoclassicism. This school was formed in the USA. Rational expectations are formed on the basis of all available information about the current state and prospects for economic development. However, this theory turned out to be divorced from real processes.

Literature:

1. « History of Economic Thought". Textbook. Ministry of Education and Science Shmarlovskaya G.A., Tur A.N., Lebedko E.E. and others. LLC “New Knowledge” 2000.

2. "History of the World Economy." Lecture notes. Bor M.Z. Business and service 2002.

3. "History of Economic Thought". Lecture course. Levita R.Ya. Catallaxy with the participation of KnoRus JSC, 2003.

4. "Ancient accounting: what it was like." Malkova T.N. Finance and Statistics, 1995.

5. “History of economics and economic doctrines.” Educational and methodological manual of the Ministry of Education and Science. Surin A.I. Finance and Statistics, 2001.

6. “History of economic doctrines” M., 2003. R.Ya. Levita.

7. “History of Economic Doctrines” M.: Humanitarian Publishing House. center, 1997, N.E. Titova.

8. “History of Economic Doctrines” M.: Publishing House “Center”, 1997, V.N. Kostyuk.

9. E. F. Borisov “Anthology on Economic Theory” M., “Lawyer” 1997

10. “History of Economic Thought in Russia”, ed. A.N. Markova, M.: “Law and Law.” Ed. association "UNITY", 1996

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Titova N.E.

History of economic doctrines: Course of lectures. -- M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 1997. -- 288 p. ISBN 5-691-00008-Х.

The purpose of the course of lectures is for students to master the historical heritage and ideological wealth of scientists of different eras in the field of economic thought. Studying the concepts and theories of individual schools and trends that existed in the past and that exist in the present in economic science allows you to consolidate and deepen the knowledge acquired in the course of economic theory.

For students of economic universities, as well as for those independently studying the history of economic doctrines.

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INTRODUCTION

The history of economic doctrines occupies a large place in the system of economic sciences. While complementing economic theory, it at the same time carries a certain independent load. The history of economic teachings is of great importance in the system of economic education, in the training of economists, and in the formation of their qualifications.

The following definition of science is accepted in the literature: the history of economic doctrines studies the historical process of the emergence and development of the main systems of economic views of scientists of various historical periods. It follows from this that the analysis of the emergence and development of economic doctrines covers the entire historical process of social development, all historical eras, starting with slave-owning society.

The roots of economic theories lie in the nature of the economic system, which forms the basis for the development of society. “Economic conditions,” F. Engels emphasized, “no matter how strongly they are influenced by others - political and ideological - are ultimately decisive and form that red thread that permeates all development and alone leads to its understanding "*

The connection between economic doctrines and the economy of society is most direct. Their role in social development is very great. Economic teachings do not passively reflect the processes taking place in the economy, but have a certain impact on them, promoting social development, accelerating or, conversely, slowing it down. It is well known that many concepts (for example, neoclassical or Keynesian) were the basis of government economic programs.

Economic doctrines are studied in dynamics in the process of historical development. At the same time, it must be emphasized that the history of economic teachings is directed to modern times. This is determined by the special relevance and even topicality of the issues it considers, which is one of the important features of the subject of the history of economic doctrines. Analysis of the economic teachings of past eras is not self-sufficient; it is not carried out for the sake of studying the historical process itself. Knowledge of the historical past contributes to a better understanding of the origins of the present.

The course of lectures on the history of economic doctrines examines the entire process of the evolution of economic science. An important place is occupied by the analysis of the classical school, Western European economic teachings, and Russian economic thought.*

In the domestic economic literature, economic concepts of well-being have practically not been fully studied. Meanwhile, in the West there have long been special textbooks on welfare economics,* any textbook on microeconomics and macroeconomics includes a section on “Welfare economics.”** The “welfare state” in Europe is considered the official goal of government policy.

The problem of individual and social well-being is a fundamental, complex socio-economic and philosophical problem that occupies a significant place in historical, economic, philosophical, sociological, statistical and other studies. Well-known concepts of well-being include A. Smith, L. Walras, C. Menger, V. Pareto, J. Hobson, A. Bergson, C. Arrow, A. Pigou, P. Samuelson, J. Galbraith, W. Rostow, K. Price , E. Hansen, G. Myrdal, J. Buchanan, G. Gentis, J. Sismondi, N.G. Chernyshevsky and others. Many economists considered well-being and ways to achieve it in society as a subject of political economy, rightly believing that economic activity itself and the activities of the state should have as a goal the well-being of the individual and society.

I. ECONOMIC TEACHINGS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

economic teaching school

When studying the first section, the course on the history of economic doctrines, it is necessary to take into account its specificity, due to a very extensive period of history, the abundance of material reflecting the process of development of economic thought in the ancient world. Slavery originated in the East in the 4th millennium BC. The countries of the Ancient East were characterized by patriarchal slavery. Slavery reached its greatest development in the ancient period in Ancient Greece and in Ancient Rome from the 1st millennium BC. to the 4th century AD Its heyday falls in the 5th century. BC. Ancient slavery, called classical, was the most mature form of slavery, when slaves constituted the main productive force of society.

In a slave-owning society, a corresponding ideology was formed and economic thought developed. The dominant position was occupied by the ideology of slave owners.

Lecture 1. Economic thought of Babylonia, China, India

Large centers of civilization formed on the territory of ancient Asia, slavery reached significant development, and the first slave states arose. Numerous historical monuments allow us to judge the origin and development of economic ideas. The history of ancient Babylonia gives an idea of ​​this. The beginning of the formation of an early class society is evidenced, for example, by the laws of King Eshnunna (XX century BC). They discussed economic issues. The most significant monument of the Babylonian kingdom is the code of King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), which widely reflected the economic foundations of society and the most important trends in its development. The code of laws of Hammurabi gives an idea that the division of society into slaves and slave owners was recognized at that time as natural and eternal; slaves were equated with the property of slave owners. Hammurabi's laws reflected a concern for strengthening and protecting private property. An attempt on her life was punishable by death and slavery. The historical monument indicates that the basis of the economy of the Babylonian kingdom was subsistence farming. The community maintained its position, although decay had already thoroughly affected it. The tsarist government cared about protecting the interests of the community and small producers. The laws of Hammurabi reflected the development of commodity-money relations and measures that contributed to the expansion of trade transactions.

Confucianism, a doctrine created by Confucius (Kun Fuzi), who lived in 551-479, occupies a large place in the history of social thought of ancient China during the period under review. BC. The economic views of Confucius were systematized by one of his followers, Mencius (372-289 BC). They had a great influence on Chinese economic thought. During the time of Confucius, significant changes occurred in the country's economy associated with the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the establishment of slavery. Agriculture fell into decline, community ties were destroyed, property differentiation increased, and the position of private slaveholding farms strengthened.

Confucius was one of the first to create the doctrine of natural law, on which his philosophical and socio-economic concept was based. He proceeded from the fact that the basis of the social structure is the divine principle. It determines human destiny and social order. Confucius considered the division of society into “nobles”, who make up the upper class, and “common people” (“low”), whose lot is physical labor. He did not reduce the relationship between slave owners and slaves only to coercion. Confucius called for cultivating the “trust” of slaves in exploiters, and advised the “noble” to achieve the loyalty of slaves.

The teachings of Confucius are aimed at ensuring the stability of the emerging slave system, strengthening the authority of the state, and the widespread use of traditional forms and rituals for these purposes. He advocated strengthening the power of the supreme ruler of China.

The economic views of Confucius, being a product of his era, were contradictory. The idealization of antiquity and the consolidation of patriarchal-communal relations coexisted with the development of rules governing the relationship between slaves and slave owners. He represented primarily the positions of the hereditary slave-owning aristocracy, as well as the lower, serving layer of slave owners. He combined slavery with the preservation of the old patriarchal order and blood relations. In conditions of aggravated social contradictions, Confucius looked for ways to achieve social “equality” while maintaining slave-owning orders and smoothing out class conflicts. Confucianism substantiated the conservatism of the social structure, which was established for many years in Chinese society.

Confucianism found its development in the views of Mencius, who linked social inequality with the “heavenly will” and justified the opposition between mental and physical labor. At the same time, Mencius was against the tightening of slave-owning oppression, advocated the restoration of communal land ownership, and defended the community and the economic interests of the peasants. The inconsistency inherent in the socio-economic concept of Confucianism was further deepened by Mencius.

Confucianism was criticized by Mo Tzu and his supporters (Mohists). They preached the natural equality of people, denied class and the privileges of the nobility. The Mohists substantiated the need for the comprehensive development of production to meet the needs of the entire population, the universal participation of people in physical labor, and the development of the free initiative of small producers. Contrasting Confucianism with the idea of ​​“universal mutual love,” the Mohists did not understand its illusory nature.

One of the significant monuments of the history of economic ideas in China is the treatise "Guanzi", written by unknown authors. It dates back to the IV-III centuries. BC. Showing concern for the peasantry, the authors proposed limiting their compulsory labor service and protecting them from speculators and moneylenders. In order to strengthen the economic position of the peasants, the authors of the treatise proposed changing the tax system and increasing bread prices. They placed the concern for improving the well-being of the people on the state, which was supposed to actively intervene in economic affairs, eliminate the reasons that interfere with the well-being of the people, create grain reserves to stabilize prices, take measures to overcome unfavorable natural conditions, etc.

The collision of two trends in socio-economic life: the desire to preserve patriarchal-communal principles, on the one hand, the growth and strengthening of the positions of slavery - on the other, the struggle of the classes behind them long time determined the most important issues in the economic thought of ancient China. The problem of the relationship between subsistence and commercial farming became very acute.

When studying the history of economic thought in ancient India, one should first of all pay attention to the economic ideas contained in the most ancient monuments - the Vedas, which are a collection of prayers, hymns, and spells. They were created in the 1st millennium BC. and reflected the beginning of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of slavery. The beginning of the 1st millennium dates back to the appearance of such works of ancient Indian epic containing economic ideas as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The first tells about the wars of the Bharata tribe, the second about the exploits of Rama.

The development of economic thought was reflected in literary and religious monuments. Among them are the famous “Laws of Manu,” compiled over several centuries. They contain rich material about the socio-economic conditions of India in the 3rd millennium BC, and express the economic views of slave owners through the lips of priests (Brahmins). The “Laws of Manu” are a set of instructions sent down to people by the “divine lawgiver.” They established the forms of turning a free person into a slave (dasa), and consolidated his powerless position in society. The "Laws of Manu" reflected the existence of hereditary castes. The Brahmanical concept of economic policy substantiated in them assigned a significant role to the state, which was entrusted with providing income, regulating economic activity, exploiting the free population, etc.

An outstanding monument to the history of economic thought in ancient India is the treatise "Arthashastra", the author of which was the advisor to King Chandragupta I, a brahman - Kautilya (late 4th - early 3rd centuries BC).* "Arthashastra" was created as an instruction for the king, but in its content and significance it went far beyond the scope of the code of advice. It is a comprehensive economic work, covering a wide range of topics and indicating the maturity of economic thought in India at that time. "Arthashastra" characterizes the socio-economic and political structure of the country and contains rich material illustrating the development of economic ideas.

"Arthashastra" talks about social inequality, justifies and consolidates it, confirming the legitimacy of slavery and the division of society into castes. The bulk of the country's population were Aryans, divided into four castes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The brahmins and kshatriyas had the greatest privileges. The author showed concern for strengthening the position of the Aryans. It was stated that “there should be no slavery for the Aryans.” If for some reason the Aryans became slaves, then this condition was considered temporary for them, and measures were taken to free them. The treatise paid great attention to the regulation of slavery, which retained the features of patriarchy. Measures were recommended to limit the development of slavery and prevent the aggravation of class conflicts. An Indian slave could own property, had the right to receive an inheritance, and the right to redeem himself at the expense of his property.

The Arthashastra described in detail the state of the country's economy and the main occupations of the population. The main industry was agriculture, which largely depended on irrigation. At the same time, crafts and trade developed. The treatise assigned a major role to the construction and maintenance of irrigation systems, which were qualified as the basis of the harvest. Damage to the irrigation system was considered a serious crime. The Arthashastra contains rich information about the social division of labor and exchange. The doctrine of trade was an integral part of the entire doctrine of running the national economy.

The Arthashastra paid great attention to the interpretation of the economic role of the state. It carried out the idea, typical of the economic thought of the countries of the Ancient East, about the active intervention of the state in economic life and in the regulation of social relations. Moreover, the treaty directly entrusted the royal authorities with the responsibility for carrying out many economic affairs, including the colonization of the outskirts, maintaining irrigation systems, building wells, creating new villages, organizing spinning and weaving production with the involvement of a specific contingent of workers (widows, orphans, beggars, disabled people, working off a fine, etc.). The economic policy of the royal administration, the tax system, the management of the royal economy, the main sources of income, etc. were described in detail.

The treatise "Arthashastra" gives an idea of ​​how Indian economic thought interpreted the main issues of socio-economic relations and economic life of the early slave society typical of the countries of the Ancient East.

Lecture 2. Economic teachings of Ancient Greece

The greatest role in the history of economic teachings of Ancient Greece was played by the works of famous thinkers Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle.

Xenophon was born in Athens in 430 BC (died 355 BC), belonged to a wealthy slave-owning aristocracy. He is a student of the famous ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. In his political views, he acted as a supporter of aristocratic Sparta and an opponent of Athenian democracy.

Xenophon's economic views are set out in his work "Domostroy", prepared as a guide for running a slave-owning economy. Defining the subject of home economics, he characterized it as the science of managing and enriching the economy. Xenophon considered agriculture to be the main branch of the slave economy, which he qualified as the most worthy type of occupation. According to Xenophon, “agriculture is the mother and nurse of all arts.” He saw the main goal of economic activity in ensuring the production of useful things, i.e. use values. Xenophon had a negative attitude towards crafts; he considered them an occupation suitable only for slaves. Trade was not included in the category of worthy activities of a free Greek. At the same time, in the interests of the slave-owning economy, Xenophon allowed the use of commodity-money relations.

"Domostroy" contained numerous advice to slave owners in the field of economic activity. Their destiny was management of the household, exploitation of slaves, but in no case physical labor. Xenophon expressed contempt for physical labor, qualifying it as an occupation suitable only for slaves. Giving advice on rational housekeeping and exploitation of slaves, he taught to treat slaves like animals.

Xenophon was one of the first among the thinkers of antiquity to pay great attention to the issues of division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon, as an important condition for increasing the production of use values. He came close to the principle of manufacturing division of labor. Xenophon was the first to point out the relationship between the development of the division of labor and the market. In his opinion, the division of professions depended on the volume of the market.

Xenophon is an ideologist primarily of a natural slave economy. At the same time, he considered the development of trade and money circulation useful for this economy. He saw them as one of the sources of enrichment and advised them to use them to their advantage. Xenophon recognized money as a necessary means of circulation and a concentrated form of wealth. Condemning money as commercial and usurious capital, he recommended accumulating it as treasure.

Xenophon developed an understanding of the dual purpose of a thing: as use value, on the one hand, and exchange value, on the other. Being an ideologist of natural economy, he did not attach much importance to exchange value. The value of a thing was made dependent on its utility, and the price was directly explained by the movement of supply and demand.

Economic ideas occupied a significant place in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BC). His most famous work is “Politics or the State.” Plato's socio-economic concept received concentrated expression in the project of an ideal state. Plato viewed the state as a community of people generated by nature itself, for the first time expressing the idea of ​​the inevitability of dividing the state (city) into two parts: rich and poor.

Plato paid great attention to the problem of division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon. His concept substantiated the innate inequality of people. He interpreted the division into free and slave as a normal state given by nature itself. Slaves were seen as the main productive force, and their exploitation as a means of enriching slave owners. Only Greeks could be free citizens. Barbarians and foreigners turned into slaves.

Plato considered agriculture to be the main branch of the economy, but he also approved of crafts. He saw the economic basis of the state in a subsistence economy based on the exploitation of slaves. Plato connected the need for exchange with the natural division of labor. He allowed small trade, which was designed to serve the division of labor. However, in general, Plato had a very negative attitude towards trade, especially large-scale trade, and trade profits. In his opinion, trade should be carried out mainly by foreigners, slaves. For a free Greek, he considered trading to be unworthy and even shameful.

In Plato's ideal state, free people were divided into three classes: 1) philosophers, called upon to govern the state; 2) warriors; 3) landowners, artisans and small traders. Slaves were not included in any of these classes. They were equated with inventory and were considered as talking tools of production. Philosophers and warriors constituted the highest part of society, about which Plato showed special concern. He intended to provide them with socialized consumption, which gave rise to interpret this as a kind of “aristocratic communism.”

The greatest contribution to the development of economic thought in Ancient Greece was made by the greatest thinker of antiquity, Aristotle. He was born in 384 BC. in the family of a doctor (died 322 BC). Being a student of Plato at the Academy, Aristotle did not share Plato's idealism. Showing fluctuations between materialism and idealism, he moved towards materialism. Aristotle is known as the educator of the heir to the throne in Macedonia, the famous Alexander the Great. Subsequently, he founded the Lyceum philosophical school in Athens, was engaged in scientific and pedagogical activities, and was the author of numerous works on natural science, philosophy, logic, economics, literature, history, etc. His political views are set out in his work "Politics" and other works. He is an opponent of the aristocratic system, oligarchic power, and a supporter of slave-owning democracy. Aristotle justified the division of people into slaves and free, perceiving it as natural. In his opinion, freedom was the destiny of only the Hellenes. As for foreigners (barbarians), by their nature they could only be slaves. He divided the citizens of Greece into five groups (classes): 1) agricultural class, 2) artisan class, 3) trading class, 4) hired workers, 5) military. Slaves formed a separate group, not included in the civil community. Aristotle associated slavery with the natural division of labor, believing that slaves by nature are such and are only capable of physical labor. The slave was equated with other things that belonged to free people and was included in their property. Slaves, according to Aristotle, were supposed to provide all types of physical labor.

Aristotle's outstanding merit in the development of economic thought is his attempt to penetrate into the essence of economic phenomena and reveal their patterns. In this, Aristotle differed significantly from his predecessors (Xenophon, Plato), laying the foundation for economic analysis, which was manifested in the approach to defining the subject of economic science, in the study of exchange, forms of value, etc.

As a supporter of a natural economy based on the exploitation of slaves, Aristotle viewed economic phenomena from the point of view greatest benefit. Everything that corresponded to the interests of strengthening the economy was accepted as natural and fair. On the contrary, everything that undermined and disintegrated the economy was classified as unnatural phenomena. From this point of view, wealth and its sources, the means of satisfying the needs of society, were assessed. Aristotle attributed natural phenomena to economics, which revealed the sources of “true wealth”, consisting of use values. Economics provided the study of ways to strengthen subsistence farming; possibilities for expanding the production of consumer values. This corresponded to the maintenance of moderate amounts of wealth, a supporter of which was Aristotle, who rejected excessive accumulation of money, enrichment through the form of circulation, speculative trade, usury, etc. He allowed barter trade, since it did not violate the predominant role of use value, and attributed it to economics.

Aristotle associated unnatural phenomena with the excessive development of the sphere of circulation and included them in chrematistics, which was considered as the art of “making money”, creating wealth that has no boundaries. He rejected large-scale, speculative trade, pursuing the goal of accumulating monetary wealth, and condemned usury. Being a supporter of farming based on economics, the great thinker of antiquity resolutely opposed what was classified as chrematistics.

Aristotle made brilliant guesses about exchange, exchange value. He understood that exchanged goods without the identity of their essences could not relate to each other as commensurate quantities. In his opinion, exchange cannot take place without equality, and equality cannot take place without commensurability. In exchange, all crafts and arts are equated, and the use values ​​participating in it have something in common, although Aristotle could not explain such an equation. Aristotle's genius manifested itself in the fact that in expressing the value of a commodity he discovered the relation of equality. Only the historical boundaries of the society in which he lived prevented him from revealing what this relation of equality “really” consisted of.

It is also interesting how Aristotle viewed the form of value. The monetary form of the commodity was accepted as a development of the simple form of value. Although he could not scientifically explain the origin and essence of money, what is important is that he connected it with the development of exchange and laid the foundation for considering the functions of money as a measure of value and a means of circulation. “In the history of economic teachings, ancient Greek thinkers display the same genius and originality,” noted K. Marx, “as in all other areas. Historically, their views therefore form the theoretical starting points of modern science.”*

Lecture 3. Literature on the organization of slave latifundia in Ancient Rome

The economic thought of the ancient world was further developed and completed in Ancient Rome. It reflected the next stage in the evolution of slavery, new forms of organization of slave-holding farms, the more brutal exploitation of slaves characteristic of them, the aggravation of contradictions and the intensification of struggle in the conditions of a decaying slave-owning society. The most important problem of ancient Roman literature remained the problem of slavery, its justification, organization and methods of running large slave-holding farms (latifundia). Cato the Elder (234-149 BC), Varro (116-27 BC), Columella (1st century AD) spoke on these issues.

The rationale for the ancient Roman form of slavery and the methods of conducting large-scale farming are set out in detail in the essay “Land Ownership” by Cato the Elder, who was a large landowner. Cato’s treatise reflected the period of the rise of Roman slave production. His ideal was mainly subsistence farming, providing primarily for one's own needs. However, trade was not excluded, designed to sell part of the products and acquire what could not be produced on its own. A large place in Cato's writings was occupied by advice on the maintenance of slaves, the use of their labor, and methods of exploitation. The author classified slaves as instruments of production, recommended keeping them strictly, depending on their diligence, rationally exploiting their labor. Cato considered it advisable to acquire slaves at a young age, raising them in obedience, in a spirit pleasing to the owner. Anticipating possible disturbances and protests by slaves, Cato advised maintaining discord among them, inciting conflicts and disagreement between them, and promptly getting rid of the decrepit and sick. Slaves were severely punished for the slightest offenses. Food, clothing, and housing had to correspond to their position as speaking instruments. All of Cato's advice is aimed at ensuring the rational conduct of a large slave-holding economy.

Development of problems of the latifundia economy in the 1st century BC. continued the Roman scientist Varro. His views are set out in the treatise “On Agriculture”. It reflected, on the one hand, more developed forms of slavery, the highest degree of evolution of large slave economies; on the other hand, new aspects of the socio-economic situation associated with the deepening contradictions that increasingly permeated the economy of the Roman slave state.

In his treatise, Varro expresses serious concern about the fate of the slave economy. He reproaches the slave owners for having retired from business, living in cities, and entrusting the latifundia to managers. The author is looking for ways to strengthen the economy not only in the development of agriculture, but also cattle breeding, in the application of agronomic science, increasing the intensity of production, improving methods of exploitation of slaves, using material interest, etc. His concerns are connected not only with preserving the natural character of slave-owning latifundia, but also with increasing their profitability and increasing production efficiency. Varro pays great attention to the treatment of slaves and methods of their exploitation. He classified slaves as one of three types of agricultural implements: talking. The other two types of tools in his classification were dumb (inventory) and those emitting inarticulate sounds (draft animals).

Columella reflected the crisis of slavery in his essay “On Agriculture”. The extensive treatise, consisting of 12 books, examines in detail the state of the slave latifundia. Columella wrote about the extremely low productivity of slave labor, that slaves bring the greatest harm to the fields, have a bad attitude towards work, the maintenance of livestock, equipment, steal, deceive landowners, etc. The picture painted by Columella testifies to the decline of agriculture, and to the fact that the economy of the slave society was already in a state of crisis, which continued to deepen. According to Columella, "the latifundia destroyed Italy."

In search of a way out of the crisis, the Roman scientist gives preference to the more productive labor of free producers and raises the question of abandoning slave labor and using colones.

One of the pages in the history of the economic teachings of Ancient Rome is connected with the Gracchian agrarian movement, which expressed the interests of the landless and land-poor peasantry in the struggle against the latifundists. It was led by the brothers Tiberius (163-132 BC) and Gaius (153-121 BC) the Gracchi. Demanding the limitation of large land ownership and the allocation of land to landless and land-poor peasants, they intended to carry out such a reform within the framework of the slave system and in this way strengthen it.

In ancient Rome, the struggle of slaves for their liberation reached great proportions. Their demands were put forward in a general form during the uprisings. The main ones were the destruction of slave-owning latifundia and liberation from slavery. The most striking pages of anti-slavery protests in Ancient Rome were associated with the largest uprising of slaves under the leadership of Spartacus (74-71 BC).

II. ECONOMIC THEORIES IN THE MIDDLE AGES

The Middle Ages covers a large historical period in Western Europe - from the 5th century. before the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries, in Russia - from the 9th century. before the reform of 1861. In a number of countries in Asia and Africa, feudal relations continued into the 20th century.

The economic thought of the Western Middle Ages developed along with the evolution of society.

When studying the economic teachings of the Middle Ages, one should first of all pay attention to the economic ideas contained in the documents and used to substantiate legal norms. These include records of customary law and the so-called “Pravda” of individual tribes, economic regulations of feudal estates, guild charters, economic legislation of cities, etc.

Lecture 4. Economic ideas in Western Europe and Russia

The economic thought of the Middle Ages is closely connected with the economic policy of states, designed to maintain the feudal order and its stabilization. Defenders of the interests of the feudal lords had a negative attitude towards trade and usury. The natural economic limitation of production was considered an advantage and was presented as a social virtue.

Due to the fact that the church played an exceptional role in the Middle Ages, economic thought in a number of cases was clothed in a religious shell and took on a theological form.

An idea of ​​the economic ideas of the early Middle Ages (VI-X centuries) is given by the ancient record of the judicial customs of the Franks, “The Salic Truth,” compiled at the beginning of the 6th century AD.

Giving a list of fines for all kinds of crimes, she characterizes the economic views of the Franks: the communal peasantry on the one hand, and service people or combatants on the other. In its prescriptions, agriculture appears as the natural occupation of the Frank. Cities and industry were not given special attention. There are no trade problems at all.

"Salicheskaya Pravda" defended the position of the community, the sustainability of communal land tenure, and the priority of communal property over private property. At the same time, the communal principles of economic life were combined in it with the recognition of slavery, colony of large land ownership and royal power as legitimate phenomena.

"Salic truth" reflected the decomposition of the clan system, the beginning of the process of feudalization of the differentiation of Frankish society and the interests of the serving aristocracy grouped around the king.

Three centuries later, the economic issues of the medieval estate were reflected in the Capitulary of the Villas (the law on estates), issued under Charlemagne. It consolidated the serfdom of the peasants; the task of economic policy was reduced to the establishment of serfdom.

Economic views of the canonists

The originality of the economic thought of the Middle Ages was clearly reflected in the economic teachings of Catholicism. In the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church strengthened its power. Possessing colossal wealth and land ownership, churchmen justify the rule of serfdom and defend its positions with the help of church rules, the so-called canons of the church.

The finalizer of the views of the canonists was the Italian theologian Thomas Aquinas (1225-1275), who created the extensive work “Summa Theologies.” He stood out as a major representative of the economic thought of the Middle Ages. Aquinas’ work became a kind of encyclopedia of Catholicism. And to this day, his teaching is widely used by the Vatican.

Aquinas considered such economic problems as property, trade, “fair price”, interest.

He characterized the social division of labor as a natural phenomenon and believed that it underlies the division of society into classes. Aquinas argued that people are born different by nature and, based on natural differences, concluded that peasants were created for physical labor, and the privileged classes should devote themselves to spiritual activities “for the sake of the salvation of the rest.” Like ancient thinkers, he placed intellectual labor above physical labor and interpreted the latter as a slave occupation.

F. Aquinas paid a lot of attention to private property. In it he saw the basis of the economy and believed that man by nature has the right to appropriate wealth. Hence, property acquired to satisfy necessary needs is a natural and necessary institution of human life.

The theory of “fair price” occupies an important place in Aquinas’s teaching. The canonical theory inherited the idea of ​​a fair price from antiquity. In the Middle Ages, both the peasant and the artisan had a more or less accurate idea of ​​the labor costs for the production of their goods and, in exchange, determined their prices depending on the labor spent on production. The law of value was in effect long before the emergence of the capitalist mode of production. A price that was based on labor costs, i.e. on the exchange of equivalents, was considered a fair price.

On the one hand, Aquinas considers the “fair price” to be the correct prices corresponding to labor costs, and on the other hand, he proves the legality of deviating from this price if it does not guarantee each participant in the exchange an existence decent for his rank.

Consequently, from Aquinas’s point of view, it was not the same, but different prices for different classes for the same product that were considered fair.

Closely related to the theory of the “just price” are Aquinas’s discussions of profit and interest. Unconditionally justifying the receipt of ground rent, he took an ambivalent position in relation to profit and interest. Aquinas was a supporter of the naturalization of economic life and, like his predecessors, was hostile to large-scale trade and usury. He devoted one of the questions of his main essay to the problem of the sinfulness of charging interest.

The profit received by merchants does not contradict, in his opinion, Christian virtue and should be considered as payment for labor. The level of profit is normal if it provides the merchant’s family with the opportunity to live according to his place in the class hierarchy of society.

Paying tribute to the times, Aquinas makes attempts to find a compromise solution to the issue of charging interest, which in the middle of the 13th century. was prohibited and condemned by the church. He interprets it as a reward to the creditor for the risk of non-payment, for providing a deferment to the debtor in the payment of his debt or as receiving disinterested gifts from the debtor, as well as in the case of the debtor using the loaned money for the purpose of making a profit.

Economic ideas in the Middle Ages, in Russia. "Ruler" of Ermolai-Erasmus.

The economic thought of the Russian state, as in other countries, developed along with the development of society. For a long time it existed in close connection with the religious views of their people. moral concepts. Therefore, when studying economic thought Ancient Rus' One should pay attention to chronicles, princely charters, and church literature. An important place among them is occupied by "Russian Truth" - the first code of laws of the Russian state in history. Its content reflected those that existed in Kievan Rus in the 11th-13th centuries. relations of production.

End of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. -- one of important stages in the history of the Russian people. During this period, the process of eliminating the fragmentation of the country and the formation of the Russian centralized state was completed. This contributed to economic progress and the development of commodity-money relations. Along with the hereditary property of the boyars, estates and noble land ownership began to expand as a reward for service. With the formation of a centralized state, the role of the local nobility increased significantly.

The economic interests of the local nobility were expressed in the 16th century. Ermolai is a priest of the Moscow Palace Church. He later became a monk under the name Erasmus. Most of his works are devoted to theological and moral themes, but in them he also covered current social issues. According to his political views, Ermolai-Erasmus is an opponent of boyar autocracy.

A significant work for its time by Ermolai-Erasmus entitled “The Ruler and Land Surveying of the Tsar,” or in short “The Ruler,” is the first special economic and political treatise in Russia, written in the 40s or early 50s of the 16th century. It sets out a system of measures aimed at solving pressing problems of the time.

A large place in The Ruler is occupied by the question of the situation of the peasant masses. Erasmus assigned them primary importance in the life of society and drew attention to their difficult, plight. In an effort to alleviate the situation of the peasants, he considered it necessary to free them from monetary payments to the landowner and from performing the yam duty, which he proposed to shift to the population of the cities. Peasants, in his opinion, should perform duties to landowners only in the form of quitrent in kind in the amount of a fifth of the product they extract.

Erasmus made the amount of provision with land and peasants dependent on official merits and the fulfillment of official duty. The unearned wealth of the nobles was rejected by him as unfair.

The "Ruler" discussed the issue of creating the economic basis of the Russian centralized state. Erasmus saw such a basis in the local land ownership of service people. The reform he proposed in the field of land ownership - the distribution of land to peasants and service people - reflected primarily the interests of a new, progressive part of society for that time - the service nobility, and was aimed at strengthening the state. In this sense, it had a progressive meaning.

The emergence of utopian socialism

In the late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries), significant changes occurred in the economic thought of Western Europe, caused by the profound process of development of manufacturing production. Great geographical discoveries and the robbery of colonies accelerated the process of capital accumulation.

During this period, social utopias arise. One of the founders of utopian socialism was Thomas More (1478-1532), an outstanding humanist thinker and political figure in Tudor England, executed for his opposition to absolutism (he refused to take the oath to the king as the head of the church). The son of a wealthy judge and himself a lawyer by training, More held high government positions.0 But despite this, he sympathized with the misfortunes of the masses.

More sharply criticized the prevailing social order in England and the methods of primitive accumulation of capital. He saw the root cause of poverty in private property and opposed it.

More was the first critic of capitalism. More's views did not represent a particular scientific theory. These were just dreams.

Among the early representatives of utopian socialism is the Italian thinker Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who came from among the poor peasantry. He is known as an active participant in the struggle for the liberation of Southern Italy from the yoke of the Spanish monarchy. Finding himself in the hands of enemies, Campanella spent 27 years in dungeons. There he wrote his famous essay “City of the Sun” (1623), in which he sharply criticized the social system of Italy at that time.

In it, Campanella put forward a project for an ideal utopian state - the city of the Sun, the basis of which was the community of property. Reflecting the traditions of economic thought of the Middle Ages, he focused on subsistence farming. The society of the future was pictured to him as a collection of agricultural communities, in work in which all citizens were involved. Campanella recognized the individuality of housing and family, the universality of work, and rejected the thesis that after the abolition of property no one would work. Consumption in the city of the Sun, he believed, would be social with an abundance of material goods, and poverty would disappear. Relations between people should be based on the principles of friendship, comradely cooperation and mutual understanding.

However, neither T. More nor T. Campanella knew the real path to a new society. They limited themselves to describing a utopian state with unusual orders, which revealed the historical limitations of their economic projects.

III. ECONOMIC THEORIES DURING THE BEGINNING OF THE MARKET ECONOMY

Lecture 5. Mercantilism as the first school of political economy

The first school of economic science was mercantilism (from the Italian word “mercante” - merchant, merchant), which became widespread and occupied leading positions in the economic thought of many countries until the end of the 17th century.

Mercantilism expressed primarily the economic policy of the state. The mercantilists represented the interests of merchant capital. Its representatives practically solved the problems of primitive accumulation.

One of the main features of mercantilism was the identification of wealth with gold and silver. Mercantilists believed that gold and silver were inherently money. This is not true, since nature does not create money, nor does it create bankers or exchange rates. Criticizing the position of the mercantilists that “gold by its nature is money,” K. Marx pointed out that “money by its nature is gold.” This means that it is gold, unlike all other goods, that is most suitable for fulfilling the role of money.

Mercantilists considered foreign trade to be the source of wealth. This interpretation was not accidental. It was an integral part of the entire concept of the mercantilists.

Seeing the source of national wealth in foreign trade and profits from alienation, mercantilists cared about an active foreign trade balance. Its implementation, as well as the accumulation of monetary wealth in general, was associated with the active activities of the state, which, through a system of administrative measures and economic policies, was supposed to facilitate the influx of gold and silver into the country. To accomplish this task, the mercantilists put forward a whole system of measures recommended to the royal authorities, which was supposed to intervene in economic life and promote active foreign trade.

In its development, mercantilism went through two stages. The first is early mercantilism (XVI century), associated with the establishment of the monetary system (monetarism). The second stage is developed mercantilism, called the manufacturing system (XVII century).

The monetary system is characterized by the concept of monetary balance. Its prominent representative is William Stafford (England). According to this concept, the task of accumulating monetary wealth in the country was solved mainly by administrative measures that ensured strict regulation of money circulation and foreign trade. Monetarists, viewing gold as a treasure, an absolute form of wealth, looked for ways to bring it in from abroad and retain it within the country. The export of money outside the borders of this state was strictly prohibited, the activities of foreign merchants were strictly controlled, the import of foreign goods was limited, high duties were established, etc.

The transition to the manufacturing system did not lead to a change in the basic dogmas of the mercantilist concept, but it did cause significant changes in the methods of accumulation. Mature mercantilism represented a more developed economy, which affected economic doctrine. Its most famous exponent was the English economist Thomas Men. In France, developed mercantilism was represented by Colbertism. In Italy, the concept of trade balance was developed by Antonio Serra.

Like the monetarists, representatives of the manufacturing system identified the wealth of nations with gold and considered foreign trade to be its only source. They were convinced of the omnipotence of money. According to Columbus, gold is an amazing thing! Whoever possesses it is the master of everything he wants. Gold can even open the way to heaven for souls.

Representatives of developed mercantilism have largely overcome the illusions of monetarists. Their economic theory is more sound. Instead of administrative methods of accumulation, the importance of which has fallen, economic methods are coming to the fore. The mercantilists abandoned the ban on the export of gold outside the country and the strict regulation of monetary circulation. They outlined measures to stimulate foreign trade, which was supposed to ensure a constant flow of gold into the country. The basic rule of foreign trade was the excess of exports over imports. To ensure its implementation, the mercantilists cared about the development of manufacturing production, internal trade, the growth of not only exports, but also the import of goods, the purchase of raw materials abroad, and the rational use of money. The growth of manufacturing production and the intensification of economic methods of accumulation did not exclude administrative influence from the state, although the nature of such influence changed. In accordance with the concept of the balance of trade, an economic policy of protectionism was pursued in the interests of its own manufacturers and merchants. A ban on the export of raw materials was maintained, the import of a number of goods, especially luxury goods, was limited, high import duties were established, etc. The mercantilists demanded that the royal government encourage the development of national industry and trade, the production of goods for export, maintain high customs duties, build and strengthen the fleet, and expand external expansion.

Mercantilism in individual countries had its own characteristics. Its development was associated with the level of maturity of capitalist production relations, which determined the practical results of national mercantilist theories.

Mercantilism reached its greatest development in England. Its early stage was represented by William Stafford, author of the book A Critical Statement of Some of the Complaints of Our Countrymen (1581). Developing the concept of monetarism, Stafford expressed concern about the flow of money abroad. He proposed solving the problem of accumulating monetary wealth mainly through administrative measures, demanding that the state prohibit the export of coins, the import of luxury goods, and restrict the import of a number of other goods. Stafford spoke in favor of expanding the processing of English wool and the production of cloth.

Mature mercantilism is represented in England by the works of Thomas Men (1571-1641). A classic representative of the manufacturing system, Thomas Men was at the same time a major merchant of his time, one of the directors of the East India Company. Defending the interests of the company from the attacks of opponents who criticized it for the export of coins, T. Men in 1621 published a pamphlet “Discourse on the trade of England with the East Indies.” The author contrasted the concept of the monetarists with the theory of the balance of trade. In 1630, T. Men writes work "The Wealth of England in Foreign Trade or the Balance of Foreign Trade as a Regulator of Wealth". This is his main work, the very title of which formulated the credo of developed mercantilism. T. Men considered strict regulation of monetary circulation harmful, advocated the free export of coins, without which normal development of foreign trade. His main concern was to ensure the rule: “Sell to foreigners annually for a greater amount than we buy from them.”* Only with the help of active foreign trade, in his opinion, can it be possible to attract into the country the “only money that we have” remain and with which we enrich ourselves.”** Demanding the abolition of the law on “spending” coins for foreigners, T. Men proceeded from the fact that the ban on the export of money inhibits the demand for English goods abroad, and an excess of money in the country contributes to rising prices.

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M.: 2002. - 784 p.

The paper examines the history of economic thought in the 19th and 20th centuries. with an emphasis on contemporary trends, ranging from marginalism to the most recent concepts that are not covered in the literature. An attempt has been made to analyze the development of economic science in the interrelation of its various directions, taking into account the methodological, philosophical and social aspects of these theories, Russian economic thought in line with European one.

The authors sought to select from the concepts that existed in the past those that most influenced modern views, as well as to show the variety of approaches to solving the same problems of economic science and to formulate the principles in accordance with which these problems were selected.

The textbook is intended for students, as well as for graduate students and teachers of economic universities.

Format: pdf

Size: 2 5.5 MB

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 3
Introduction 5
Development of economic thought: historical context 7
Section I FROM ORIGINS TO THE FIRST SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 11
Chapter 1 The world of economy in the consciousness of pre-capitalist eras 12
1. What is economics? 13
2. Economy and chrematistics 15
3. Economics in religious worldview 18
Chapter 2 Crystallization of scientific knowledge: XVI-XVIII centuries 28
1. First empirical generalizations 29
2. Mercantilism 32
Chapter 3 Formation of the classical school of political economy 42
1. Market mechanism, or the idea of ​​the “invisible hand” 44
2. The theory of production, or the secret of the wealth of nations 48
Chapter 4 Classical school: theory of value and distribution 57
1. The Wealth of Nations: Growth Factors 57
2. Theory of value 60
3. David Ricardo on rent and the future of capitalism 70
Chapter 5 Classical school: macroeconomic theories 75
1. Money and product 75
2. Say's Law 81
3. Discussions about money and credit 89
Chapter 6 Classical school: ideological versions 95
1. The split of liberalism 96
2. Critics of capitalism 105
Chapter 7 Economic theory of K. Marx 110
1. The principle of historicism 111
2. Continuation of the classical tradition 113
3. Political economy - the science of industrial relations 125
Chapter 8 Historical school in political economy 138
1. “Isms 138”
2. Friedrich List - geopolitical economist 140
3. “Old” historical school 147
4. “New” historical school: historical and ethical direction 148
5. “Young” historical school: in search of the “spirit of capitalism” 151
Chapter 9 Social economy: the origins of modern ideas about the goals and ways of reforming the economy and socio-economic relations 160
1. Social economy and economic science 160
2. French solidarism and German Katheder-socialism 163
3. Henry George: socio-economic problems through the prism of the issue of Land Ownership 167
4. Some aspects of the social doctrine of Catholicism 171
Section II BEGINNING OF THE HISTORY OF MODERN ECONOMIC THOUGHT: MARGINALISM 175
Chapter 10 Marginalist revolution. 175
General characteristics 176
1. Methodological principles of marginalism 178
2. Marginalist theory of value and its advantages 180
3. How the Marginalist Revolution proceeded 181
4. Causes and consequences of the marginalist revolution 184
Chapter 11 Austrian School 186
1. Methodological features of the Austrian school 186
2. The doctrine of goods and exchange by Menger and Böhm-Bawerk 188
3. Wieser's Theory of Opportunity Costs and Imputation 194
4. Böhm-Bawerk’s theory of capital and interest 197
5. Dispute about methods 201
Chapter 12 English marginalists: Jevons and Edgeworth 203
1. Jevons utility theory 205
2. Jevons exchange theory 206
3. Jevons labor supply theory 209
4. Jevons chain 210
5. Edgeworth's exchange theory 210
Chapter 13 The theory of general economic equilibrium 214
1. Leon Walras and his place in the history of economic thought; major works 214
2. General equilibrium model including production; the problem of the existence of a solution and the process of “tatonnement” 219
3. General equilibrium theory in the 20th century: contributions by A. Wald, J. von Neumann, J. Hicks, C. Arrow and J. Debreu 224
4. Macroeconomic aspect of the general equilibrium model 231
Chapter 14 Economic Theory of Welfare 237
1. General ideas about the subject 237
2. Modern approaches to defining public goods. Pareto optimum 241
3. Pigou’s contribution to the development of welfare theory: the concepts of national dividend and market imperfections; principles of state intervention 243
4. Fundamental welfare theorems. Optimality and control: the problem of market socialism 246
5. Attempts to solve the problem of comparing optimal states 249
6. A New Look on the problem of intervention 251
Chapter 15 Alfred Marshall's Contributions to Economic Theory 255
1. Marshall’s place in the history of economic thought 256
2. Partial equilibrium method 259
3. Analysis of utility and demand 260
4. Cost and supply analysis 265
5. Equilibrium price and the influence of the time factor 266
6. Elements of welfare theory 269
Chapter 16 In search of a model of “monetary economy”: K. VikselliI. Fisher 272
1. Knut Wicksell - economist-theorist and publicist 274
2. The concept of a cumulative process 277
3. The theory of general equilibrium and the concept of interest by I. Fisher 281
4. I. Fisher’s theory of money 284
Chapter 17 Marginalist Theory of Income Distribution: J.B. Clark, F.G. Wicksteed, K. Wicksell 290
1. Background 290
2. Marginal Productivity Theory 291
3. The problem of product exhaustion 296
Chapter 18 Theories of Entrepreneurial Function and Profit 299
1. Entrepreneurial profit - factor or residual income? 299
2. Entrepreneurship as bearing the burden of risk or uncertainty: R. Cantillon, I. Thunen, F. Knight 300
3. Entrepreneurship as coordination of factors of production: J.-B. Say 304
4. Entrepreneurship as innovation: I. Schumpeter 305
5. Entrepreneurship as arbitrage transactions: I. Kirzner 309
Chapter 19 American Institutionalism 312
1. T. Veblen’s dichotomies 313
2. Statistical institutionalism W.K. Mitchell 320
3. Legal institutionalism J.R. Commons 322
4. Renewed institutionalism J.K. Galbraith 326
Section III RUSSIAN THOUGHT FROM ORIGINS TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SOVIET PERIOD 330
Chapter 20 Russian variations of the first schools of political economy 331
1. Russian mercantilism 331
2. Physiocracy in Russia 337
3. “Two opinions on foreign trade”: free trade and protectionism 338
4. Classical political economy in assessing liberal and revolutionary Westernism 340
Chapter 21 Economic Romanticism 344
1. The question of the peasant community: Slavophilism and “Russian socialism” 344
2. The common intelligentsia and the ideologization of political economy 348
3. Labor theory of value and “capitalist pessimism” 351
4. The concept of “people's production” 355
Chapter 22 “Legal Marxism” and Revisionism 359
1. Marxism as a doctrine of capitalist development in Russia 359
2. Controversy about the national market: criticism of populism 361
3. Controversy about value: criticism of Marxism 366
4. The emergence of revisionism and its penetration into Russia 368
5. Agrarian question 370
Chapter 23 Theory of finance capital and imperialism 374
1. Leninism-Marxism without revisionism 374
2. Theory of finance capital and imperialism 377
3. The concept of “material prerequisites of socialism” 381
Chapter 24 Ethical and social direction: M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and S.N. Bulgakov 384
1. Russian economic thought at the turn of the century 384
2. M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky: ethical principle and economic theory 390
3. S.N. Bulgakov: in search of a Christian economic worldview 400
Chapter 25 Formation of the doctrine of planned economy 410
1. Marxism about a scientifically planned society 410
2. Project of “general organizational science 416”
3. The “single factory” model and its adjustment 421
Chapter 26 Economic discussions of the 1920s on the nature of a planned economy 427
1. Market, plan, equilibrium 427
2. “Genetics” and “teleology” in discussions about methods for constructing economic plans 433
Chapter 27 Organizational and production school 440
1. Krug A.V. Chayanova: agronomists - cooperators - theorists 440
2. Statics and dynamics of the labor peasant economy 444
3. The tragedy of the “liquidation of 452
Chapter 28 Economic views N.D. Kondratyeva 458
1. Economics at a turning point 458
2. Brief description of Kondratiev’s scientific heritage. Methodological approach to the general theory of economic dynamics 461
3. The theory of long waves and the discussion around it 466
4. Problems of regulation, planning and forecasting 473
Section IV THE MODERN STAGE: FROM KEYNES TO THE PRESENT 479
Chapter 29 J.M. Keynes: a new theory for a changed world 481
1. The meaning of J.M.’s ideas Keynes for modern economics 481
2. Main stages of life, scientific and practical activities 483
3. Moral and philosophical position and economic ideas 487
4. From the quantity theory of money to the monetary theory of production 490
5. “General theory of employment, interest and money”: methodological, theoretical and practical innovations 495
6. Keynes’ theory and its interpretation by J. Hicks 504
7. Development and rethinking of Keynes' legacy 507
Appendix 1 Responses to the “General Theory” 514
Appendix 2 Phillips curve 516
Appendix 3 Study of the type of functions of the ISLM 517 type model
Chapter 30 Problems of uncertainty and information in economic theory 520
1. Background 521
2. Expected utility theory 523
3. Economic theory of information - search theory 533
4. Information asymmetry 535
Chapter 31 Theories of Economic Growth 537
1. Main topics of growth theory 537
2. Background 537
3. Harrod-Domar Model 541
4. Neoclassical growth model R. Solow 546
5. Post-Keynesian concepts of economic growth. Kaldor Model 551
6. New theories of growth 552
Chapter 32 Economic Theory of Supply 554
1. Conservative challenge to Keynes 554
2. Supply side economics. Theoretical foundations of the concept 556
3. Laffer curve and its rationale 559
4. Empirical assessments of the most important dependencies. From theory to practice 561
Appendix 1 Dynamics of the rate of total savings of the private sector in the USA 566
Chapter 33 Monetarism: theoretical foundations, conclusions and recommendations 567
1. General characteristics of the concept 567
2. The evolution of monetarism and its varieties 570
Appendix 1 St. Louis Model 584 Block Diagram
Appendix 2 Data on price growth rates and unemployment rates in the United States in 1960-1997 585
Chapter 34 “New Classics”: Restoring Tradition 587
1. “New classics” in the context of current problems of theory and practice 587
2. Hypothesis of rational expectations 590
3. Lucas equilibrium cyclic process 593
4. Macroeconomic model of the “new classics” and the impact of monetary policy on the economy 597
Appendix 1 On the issue of the relationship between expected and ongoing events 602
Chapter 35 F. Hayek and the Austrian tradition 603
1. F. Hayek and economic thought of the 20th century. 603
2. Basic principles of the philosophy and methodology of F. Hayek and their significance for economic theory 606
3. Economic theory as a problem of coordination 611
4. Hayek’s contribution to the development of the theory of prices, capital, cycle and money 615
5. Principles and boundaries of economic policy 618
Chapter 36 Evolutionary Economics 621
1. The evolutionary principle in the history of economic science 623
2. Modern approach to the application of the evolutionary principle in economics 630
3. Main directions and controversial issues of evolutionary economics 634
Chapter 37 Behavioral Economics 639
1. General characteristics 639
2. The model of bounded rationality - the methodological basis of behavioral theory 641
3. Variable rationality models 645
4. Behavioral Theory of the Firm - Mellon-Carnegie University School 647
5. Behavioral theory of consumption - Michigan School 651
Chapter 38 New Institutional Theory 653
1. Methodological features and structure of the new institutional theory 654
2. Property rights, transaction costs, contractual relations 659
3. Coase Theorem 664
4. Theory of economic organizations 668
5. Economics of Law 676
6. Public choice theory 680
Chapter 39 Public Choice Theory 688
1. The ideological foundation of the theory of public choice 688
2. Providing public goods in direct democracy 690
3. Problems of choice in a representative democracy 695
4. Theories based on the concept of public choice 703
Chapter 40 “Economic Imperialism” 719
1. Economic theory of discrimination 722
2. Human capital theory 725
3. Economic analysis of crime 728
4. Economic analysis of competition in the political market 730
5. Family Economics 731
6. “Economic approach” as a research program 736
Chapter 41 A few words about methodology 740
1. What is methodology and what causes interest in it today? 740
2. From the history of methodological discussions: from disputes about the subject and tasks to the problem of the criterion of the truth of a theory 742
3. “Atypical view”: the epistemological function of value orientations and the language of theory as a way of persuasion 752
Chapter 42 Unity and diversity of modern economic theory 756
1. Main stream and alternatives 756
2. Specialization of certain areas of economic theory 760
3. Institutional factors that determine the structure of economic theory 761
4. National, cultural and other features of economic thought 762
Name index 764