Is there a connection between character and temperament. What is the relationship between character and temperament? What is the commonality and difference between them? Prove that character traits are determined not by biological, but by social laws. At

Temperament is the individual personality traits of each person. The behavior of each of us from birth and attitude to the world around us depends on it. In order to ensure success in any activity and reduce the likelihood of conflict situations, it is necessary to take into account the temperaments of the people around and your own.

What is temperament?

Each person has individual psychophysiological properties. They are present from birth and are very stable. The totality of these properties is called temperament, and it is on them that the dynamic features of mental processes and human states depend.

Features of temperament do not affect the cognitive abilities of a person or his moral qualities. But they must be taken into account when choosing an activity - for example, it will not be easy for people with slow reactions to control mechanisms at high speed, but they will ideally cope with work that requires concentration and perseverance.

It is worth noting once again that these properties are precisely psychophysical. This is part of human physiology. Not only a person’s behavior and his character depend on temperament, but also his energy, efficiency, pace and speed of completing tasks, the ease of changing forms of activity and the general emotional background. These differences can be seen even in newborns: some children are more active, scream more often, sleep less, while others, even during periods of wakefulness, can lie quietly looking at toys.

Differences in temperament from character

What are the types?

Scientists distinguish four main types of temperament. When determining them, the dynamic characteristics of mental activity are taken into account: for example, its pace and rhythm, sharpness, intensity and amplitude. Equally important are indicators of a person's emotionality - impressionability or sensitivity to various kinds of influences, the speed with which emotions cause actions and end, the pace of their change, strength and depth. This allows all people to be divided into four groups according to the type of temperament:

• sanguine,
• phlegmatic,
• choleric,
• melancholic.

Usually, special tests are carried out to establish the type of temperament. But sometimes, knowing a person well, this can be determined “by eye”, taking into account only the main characteristics of different types.

sanguine

The owners of this type of temperament have a strong and dynamic, while very balanced nervous system, characterized by a high degree of extraversion. Most sanguine people are energetic, mobile and sociable people.. They react quickly to external stimuli, but their experiences are not very deep. They easily cope with losses and failures, just not obsessing over them.

Most of all, sanguine people are afraid of going crazy and losing their normal, measured and stable spiritual being.

Such people love new experiences, sometimes even on the verge of reason. They are very resistant to the emotion of fear, but they often suffer from banal phobias - for example, acrophobia or claustrophobia. Owners of this type of temperament are very fond of being among people. They are oppressed by loneliness, but in the company they often joke and laugh, they are in the spotlight. They are excellent organizers and leaders, but sometimes they are superficial.

Phlegmatic person

Phlegmatic temperament is characterized by balance of all nervous processes and introversion. Its owners usually have a strong nervous system, are distinguished by composure and some inertia. Such people can be slow, but at the same time they are thorough and unflappable. Phlegmatic people are not prone to violent reactions and strong emotional experiences. They are rarely afraid of something, but at the same time they have difficulty adapting to a new environment, so they may feel anxious and depressed.

Phlegmatic temperament often makes its owner a subordinate. Such people do not like conflicts, it is easier for them to agree with the interlocutor, therefore they easily succumb to persuasion, more often become followers than leaders. Usually phlegmatic people are sensitive and understand others well, so they are careful about their feelings. They are indecisive, yet sweet and charming. With the correct and clear setting of the task, they can become ideal performers, but not leaders. In the absence of a stimulus, phlegmatic people can be passive, boring, lazy and weak-willed.

Choleric

Owners of this type of temperament are distinguished by an stable nervous system. In them, the processes of excitation strongly predominate over inhibition, so their movements are sharp and impetuous, all their thoughts proceed quickly, and their feelings completely capture. Choleric people are extroverts, very sociable, open to emotions, but the mood can change too quickly. Usually their experiences are not too deep, so the owners of this temperament cope with difficulties easily. Their main problem is the inability to restrain themselves.

Cholerics are born leaders. They easily carry people along and enjoy it. They love to argue, but not to search for the truth, but simply to prove their case and again be above everyone. People with this temperament are quick-tempered and often suffer from fits of rage, but at the same time they quickly move away and forget insults. In order to save face, they are able to blame others for their mistakes.

With the right motivation, a choleric person can be very enterprising, inventive, energetic and principled. The lack of education and positive goals in life makes him irritable, prone to affect and loss of self-control.

melancholic

People with a melancholic temperament have a weak nervous system. Most of them are emotionally unstable introverts. Often this is accompanied by autonomic disorders and panic attacks. The processes of inhibition in them prevail over excitation.

Melancholic people usually look calm and outwardly sluggishly react to stimuli, but at the same time they react very sharply to any shades of feelings. The emotional experiences of such a person are always very deep and are exposed for a long duration. Owners of this type of temperament often suffer from depression and come up with frightening situations for themselves, which leads to depression and blues.

Melancholics are prone to creative activity and are often engaged in science. Their constant desire for improvement and perseverance in achieving goals, calm nature and non-conflict make them excellent employees. But only in small companies, where you don’t have to constantly be in sight and communicate with someone. Conditions that require quick decisions and activity can cause prolonged inhibitory responses in them. Simply put, such a person will give up and stop any activity.

What does temperament depend on?

As we have already said, temperament is an innate feature of a person. It is believed that it is genetically determined, but there is no hard evidence for this today. In addition, it is noticed that some factors can influence it.

• Climatic conditions. Probably everyone noticed that southerners often have an explosive choleric temperament than residents of northern countries.
• Lifestyle. Lack of sleep and poor nutrition, night work and alcohol abuse can make noticeable adjustments.
• Age. Gradually, a person's hormonal background changes. For example, a decrease in testosterone levels that occurs over the years leads to a decrease in energy, aggressiveness, and a weakening of leadership qualities.

In addition, there is a theory that temperament may depend on the time of year when a person was born. The researchers noticed that summer-borns were more likely to experience rapid mood swings, spring-borns were more positive, and "winter people" were less irritable but prone to depression. Unfortunately, there is no scientific confirmation of this fact, as well as an explanation.

Is there a relationship with blood type?

The idea of ​​linking temperament with blood type is not new and has long haunted scientists. There are many studies on this topic. The most popular is the theory, which is based on the assertion that all blood types have different origins and did not appear on Earth at the same time. That is why their owners have different temperaments, must eat certain foods and choose the appropriate type of activity.

• The most ancient, according to this theory, is the first blood group. It belonged to ancient hunters who were constantly fighting for survival. According to the researchers, these people are born leaders and optimists, have a tough will and always try to manage all the processes.
• The second blood type appeared when people united in tribes and began to engage in agriculture. At this stage, the ties between people became closer, the norms of behavior became tougher. People with the second group inherited a more stable nervous system from their ancestors. They are calm, patient and diligent. These are extroverts who easily make contact. At the same time, they can be stubborn and conservative, sometimes they do not tolerate stress well and do not know how to relax.
• The third group was formed among the nomads. They needed to constantly adapt to new conditions, so the descendants of these people also have high stress resistance and susceptibility. These are creative and inventive individualists who often hide a quivering soul behind external calm.
• The fourth group is the youngest. It was formed in the process of mixing the second and third. Its owners are kind and calm people, pleasant and sociable. But at the same time, they often live for today and do not think about the consequences.
  Somehow, the creators of this theory failed to correlate blood groups with specific types of temperament. It also turned out to be impossible to prove it, so for the scientific world this is nothing more than an interesting fairy tale.

Can temperament be changed?

It is not uncommon to hear from people that they do not like their temperament and would like to change it for the better. But this is an innate quality, which is not so easy to change. You need to understand that temperament cannot be good or bad, each of them has its strengths and weaknesses, and they must be identified and used correctly.

Those who want to change their temperament should consider why they should do so. For example, a melancholic envies his choleric director and wants to become just as successful and active. He can overpower himself and begin to move, talk and act more energetically. He may even be able to convince everyone that he is a strong leader and become a director. But will he be any happier for it? Hardly. From such loads and constant communication, a concentrated melancholic introvert, who is used to achieving an ideal result in everything, will simply burn out emotionally.

You need to understand that you can learn to act like the owner of a different temperament, but you can’t change your essence. It would be much more correct to study your characteristics and strengths and try to organize your life so that you don’t want to change anything.

Temperament is an important innate psychophysiological feature of a person. In many respects, the character and behavior of a person depends on him. It is impossible to change it or somehow program it before birth. But it is very important to consider temperament when choosing the type of activity.

Temperament(lat. temperamentum - ratio, mixing of parts, proportionality) - a complex of psychodynamic properties of an individual, manifested in the features of his mental activity - the intensity, speed and pace of mental reactions, the emotional tone of life.

- a naturally conditioned inclination of an individual to a certain style of behavior. 13 it manifests the sensitivity of the individual to external influences, the emotionality of his behavior, impulsiveness or restraint, sociability or isolation, ease or difficulty in social adaptation.

The psychodynamic features of human behavior are determined by the peculiarities of his higher nervous activity. I. P. Pavlov identified three main properties of nervous processes - strength, balance and mobility. Their various combinations form four types of higher nervous activity that underlie the four temperaments.

The name of temperaments was first introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who associated the types of temperaments with the predominance of various fluids in the human body: blood (sanguis) - in, yellow bile (chole) - in choleric, mucus (phlegm) - in phlegmatic and black bile (melaina chole) - melancholic.

The totality of the properties of nervous activity, integrating in temperament, determines a number of the following mental characteristics of the individual.

1. Speed ​​and intensity of mental processes, mental activity, musculo-motor expressiveness.

2. Preferential subordination of the command to external impressions - extraversion or its predominant subordination to the inner world of a person, his feelings, ideas - introversion.

3. Plasticity, adaptability to external changing conditions, the mobility of stereotypes, their flexibility or rigidity.

4. Sensitivity, sensitivity, susceptibility, emotional excitability, strength of emotions, their stability. Levels of anxiety and tension are associated with emotional stability.

In certain types of temperament, there is a "mixing" of the considered qualities in individual proportions.

Temperament as an innate type of mental self-regulation

The four types of temperament discussed above are usually not presented in their pure form. People, as a rule, have mixed temperaments, but one or another type of temperament prevails. Theoretically, dividing temperaments into four types, one should distinguish between the individual type of temperament and the complex of features of higher nervous activity corresponding to it. Thus, within the limits of the weak type of higher nervous activity, several varieties are distinguished in terms of the balance and mobility of nervous processes.

Mental states caused by various life circumstances largely depend on the type of human temperament. However, his culture of behavior does not depend on temperament, but on upbringing. Depending on how a person relates to certain phenomena, life tasks, surrounding people, he mobilizes the appropriate energy, becomes capable of prolonged stress, forces himself to change the speed of his reactions and the pace of work. An educated and sufficiently strong-willed choleric is able to show restraint, switch attention to other objects, although this is given to him with great difficulty than, for example, phlegmatic.

The dynamic features of a person's character depend on temperament - the style of his behavior. - “natural soil”, on which the process of formation of individual character traits, the development of individual human abilities takes place.

People achieve the same success in different ways, replacing their "weak" sides with a system of mental compensation.

Under the influence of living conditions, a choleric person can develop inertia, slowness, lack of initiative, while a melancholic person can develop energy and determination. Life experience and upbringing of a person mask the manifestations of his temperament. But under unusual superstrong influences, in dangerous situations, previously formed inhibitory reactions can be disinhibited. Cholerics and melancholics are more prone to a neuropsychic breakdown. Along with this, the scientific approach to understanding the behavior of an individual is incompatible with the rigid binding of people's actions to their natural characteristics.

In foreign psychology and criminology, there have been and are attempts to link human behavior with his bodily organization. So, C. Lombroso tried to connect crime with the structural features of the skull, face and body of a person. The German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer also tried to establish a connection between the psychology of personality and the constitution of the human body. He associated the abilities of a person and his character with the fullness of the body, the development of the mouse, etc.

Research by I. P. Pavlov showed that personality traits depend on the natural neurophysiological organization of a person, but are not determined by it. In the experiments of IP Pavlov, it was proved that nervous activity is plastic, amenable to change. “The behavior of man and animal is determined not only by the innate properties of the nervous system, but also by those influences that have fallen and are constantly falling on the organism during its individual existence, that is, it depends on constant education or training in the broadest sense of these words. And this is because, next to the above-mentioned properties of the nervous system, the most important property constantly appears - the highest plasticity.

So, depending on the conditions of life and human activity, individual properties of his temperament can be strengthened or weakened. Temperament, despite its natural conditionality, can be attributed to personality traits, since it combines the natural and socially acquired qualities of a person.

Foreign psychologists divide temperamental features mainly into two groups - extraversion And introversion. These concepts, introduced by the Swiss psychologist C. G. Jung, mean the primary focus of individuals on the external (extrovert) or internal (introvert) world (from Latin extra - outside, intro - inside and verto - turn). Extroverts are distinguished by a predominant appeal to the outside world, increased social adaptability, they are more conformal and suggestive (subject to suggestion). Introverts, on the other hand, attach the greatest importance to the phenomena of the inner world, they are uncommunicative, prone to increased introspection, have difficulty entering a new social environment, are nonconformal and suggestive.

The problems of extra- and introversion occupy a central place in the factorial theories of personality (R. Cattell, G. Eysenck and others). G. Eysenck found that introverts have a higher level of activity of the cerebral cortex. Extroverts compensate for the lack of this activation with additional movements, increased attention to external signals, bringing variety to any monotonous situation. Introverts and extroverts have a different style of intellectual activity.

Among the qualities of temperament are also highlighted rigidity And plastic.

Rigidity - inertness, conservatism, difficulty in switching mental activity.

There are several types of rigidity:

• sensory - prolongation of sensation after the cessation of the stimulus;
• motor - the difficulty of restructuring habitual movements;
• emotional - continuation of the emotional state after the termination of the emotional impact;
• memory - reserving, obsession with memory images;
• thinking - inertia of judgments, attitudes, ways of solving problems.

The quality opposite to rigidity is plasticity, flexibility, mobility, adequacy.

The features of temperament include such a mental phenomenon as anxiety- tension, increased emotional excitability in situations interpreted by the individual as threatening. Individuals with a high level of anxiety are prone to behavior that is inadequate to the degree of threat. An increased level of anxiety causes a desire to escape from the perception of threatening events, involuntarily narrowing the field of perception in a stressful situation.

So, human temperament determines the dynamics of his behavior, the originality of the course of his mental processes. Temperament determines the way a person sees and experiences events and their verbal relaying.

Analyzing human behavior, one cannot ignore the "biological background" of human behavior, which affects the degree of intensity of individual personality traits.

For a long time, a person's temperament was interpreted as a direct consequence of his type of higher nervous activity. Recently, this concept has been revised in the light of the teachings of P. K. Anokhin on functional systems, as well as other theoretical positions of domestic and foreign researchers (V. D. Nebylitsyn, V. M. Rusalov, G. Eysenck, J. Rush).

So, the temperamental features of a person act as psychophysiological possibilities of his behavior. For example, the mobility of nervous processes determines the dynamic qualities of the intellect, the flexibility of associative processes; excitability - ease of occurrence and intensity of sensations, stability of attention, the power of imprinting memory images.

However, temperament is not a value criterion of a person, it does not determine the needs, interests, views of a person. In the same type of activity, people with different temperaments can achieve outstanding success due to their compensatory abilities.

Not the temperament, but the orientation of the personality, the predominance of her higher motives over the lower ones, self-control and self-control, suppression of the motives of the lower level in order to achieve socially significant goals determine the quality of human behavior.

Temperament does not predetermine character traits, but there is a close relationship between temperament and character traits:

• the dynamic features of the manifestation of character depend on temperament. For example, sociability in a sanguine and phlegmatic person will manifest itself in different ways;
• temperament affects the development of individual character traits. Some properties of temperament contribute to the formation of certain character traits, others counteract;
• depending on the type of temperament of the child, it is necessary to use individual methods of influencing him in order to bring up the necessary character traits;
• there is also an inverse relationship between the manifestations of temperament and its character - thanks to certain character traits, a person can restrain manifestations of temperament that are undesirable under given circumstances.

So, literally translated from Greek, we remind you that character means chasing, imprint. In psychology, character is understood as the totality of individual-peculiar mental properties that manifest themselves in a person under typical conditions and are expressed in the ways of activity inherent in such conditions.

Character is an individual combination of essential personality traits that express a person’s attitude to reality and are manifested in his command, in his actions.

Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. Character as well as temperament. is fairly stable and unchanging. Temperament has an impact on the form of manifestation of character, peculiarly coloring one or another of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed by vigorous activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated deliberation. Choleric works energetically, passionately, phlegmatic - methodically, slowly. On the other hand, the temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character. A high level of abilities is associated with such character traits as collectivism - a feeling of inextricable connection with the team, a desire to work for its good, faith in one's own strengths and capabilities, combined with constant dissatisfaction with one's achievements, high demands on oneself, and the ability to be critical of one's work. The flourishing of abilities is associated with the ability to persistently overcome difficulties, not to lose heart under the influence of failures, to work in an organized manner, to show initiative. The connection between character and abilities is also expressed in the fact that the formation of such character traits as diligence, initiative, determination, organization, perseverance occurs in the same activity of the child in which his abilities are formed. For example, in the process of labor as one of the main types of activity, on the one hand, the ability to work develops, and on the other, diligence as a character trait.

In dealing with people, the character of a person is manifested in the manner of behavior. in ways of responding to the actions and deeds of people. The manner of communication can be more or less delicate, tactful or unceremonious, polite or rude. Character, unlike temperament, is determined not so much by the properties of the nervous system as by the culture of a person, his upbringing.

There is a division of human personality traits into motivational and instrumental. Motivational encourage, direct activity, support it, and instrumental give it a certain style. Character can be attributed to the number of instrumental personality traits. It is not the content that depends on it, but the manner in which the activity is performed. True, as was said, character can also be manifested in the choice of the goal of an action. However, when the goal is defined, the character appears more in its instrumental role, i.e. as a means to achieve the goal.

We list the main personality traits that are part of the character of a person.

Firstly, these are the personality traits that determine the actions of a person in choosing the goals of activity (more or less difficult). Here, as certain characterological traits, rationality, prudence, or their opposite qualities can appear.

Secondly, the character structures include features that relate to actions aimed at achieving the set goals: perseverance, purposefulness, consistency, and others, as well as alternatives to them (as evidence of a lack of character). In this regard, character approaches not only temperament, but also the will of a person.

Thirdly, the composition of the character includes purely instrumental traits that are directly related to temperament: extraversion - introversion, calmness - anxiety, restraint - impulsivity. switchability - rigidity, etc. A peculiar combination of all these character traits in one person allows us to classify him as a certain type.

1. Identification of character and temperament (E. Kretschmer, A. Ruzhitsky).

2. Contrasting character and temperament, emphasizing the antagonism between them (P. Viktorov, V. Virenius).

3. Recognition of temperament as an element of character, its core, an invariable part (S. Rubinshtein, S. Gorodetsky).

4. Recognition of temperament as the natural basis of character (L.S. Vygotsky, B.G. Ananiev).

In a sense, all four of these ideas are not without foundation. Common for both character and temperament is the dependence on the physiological characteristics of a person, including congenital factors. Temperament is much more closely connected with the properties of the nervous system, but these features also influence the formation of character, at least through the influence of temperament.

Character traits arise when the temperament code is already sufficiently developed (at about 4-5 years old). For this reason alone, it is not worth equating character and temperament. On the other hand, it is clear that it is temperament that affects the formation of character, and not vice versa.

Temperament determines in the character such, for example, traits:

Equilibrium,

Adaptability,

Behavioral mobility or inertia,

Attitude towards new

Diligence.

However, temperament does not fully determine character. People with the same temperament properties can have a completely different character. Features of temperament can only contribute to or counteract the formation of certain character traits. In the end, the number of temperament types is small (usually four or about four are distinguished), and character types are much larger.

The properties of temperament can sometimes even come into conflict with character to some extent. For example, people with a strong nervous system can be lazy, while those with a weak one, on the contrary, are hardworking.

In a person with a formed character, temperament ceases to be an independent form of personality manifestation, but becomes its dynamic side, consisting in a certain emotional orientation of character properties, a certain speed of mental processes and personality manifestations, a certain characteristic of expressive movements and actions of a person.

Temperament is also not something completely stable, completely dependent only on genetic factors. Just as a person can lose weight or get better, build muscle or become decrepit, get sick and recover, temperament also changes. Interestingly, the change in temperament is also influenced by character.

This happens, for example, through the influence of such a phenomenon as a dynamic stereotype - a system of conditioned reflexes that form in response to a steadily repeating system of stimuli. The formation of dynamic stereotypes in a person in various repetitive situations occurs under the influence of his attitude to the environment, to the process of activity, to the results of labor, etc., as a result of which the features of excitation, inhibition, mobility of nervous processes, and, consequently, the general functional state of the nervous system. If a person, for example, loves his job, then new production tasks cause him a joyful animation. If, on the contrary, he does not like and even hate his work, then new tasks cause irritation, boredom, depression, or even rage. Systematic stay in certain functional states can affect the characteristics of the nervous system. Thus, chronic depression can transform a strong nervous system into a weak one.

In the formation of dynamic stereotypes, the features of the second signaling system play an important role, through which social influences are carried out, as well as self-influence (for example, self-hypnosis). Of course, character is also of great importance for the operation of the second signaling system. If, for example, a person loves the truth, then he tries to speak in long and detailed phrases, strives to be correctly understood, and as a result, he himself thinks more clearly. In difficult situations, he does not panic, but - out of habit - tries to figure it out. Therefore, over time, he develops a more balanced character and even temperament. Another person does not like the truth, expresses opinions, words for him are only a means of communication. He loves to collect and disseminate all sorts of different and conflicting opinions. His speech is much poorer, shorter and more contextual. In difficult situations, it is more difficult for him to rely on his own mind, he easily loses his temper and panics. Over time, such a person is more likely to develop an unbalanced character and temperament.

Thus, the features of temperament and character are organically interconnected, and this connection is somewhere very elementary and obvious, and somewhere very subtle. At the same time, the interweaving of many features of character and temperament largely determines the individual face of a person, his personality.

Character is not innate - it is formed, develops and changes throughout a person's life. The character of a person is very much connected with the social environment, relations with this environment. It can be argued that the character of a person is always a product of society and social relations. Different times - different characters.

Alexander Gaponenko, Doctor of Economics, Professor, Head of the Department of General and Special Management of the Russian Academy of Public Administration under the President of the Russian Federation.

If the temperament is initially fixed genetically and in the process of the individual's life is basically constant, then this cannot be said about the character. It forms and changes throughout a person's life. The properties of temperament are hereditary, therefore, they are extremely difficult to change. Based on this, a person’s efforts should be directed primarily not to change, but to identifying and understanding the characteristics of their temperament. This will make it possible to identify the methods of activity that are most consistent with his natural qualities, natural talent.

Character is understood as a set of stable individual characteristics of a person, which develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, causing typical human behavior. Temperament and character have a fairly close relationship with each other, depend on the psychophysiological characteristics of the body and types of higher nervous activity. However, if the temperament is initially fixed genetically and in the process of the individual's life is basically constant, then this cannot be said about the character. It forms and changes throughout a person's life. The properties of temperament are hereditary, therefore, they are extremely difficult to change. Based on this, a person’s efforts should be directed primarily not to change, but to identifying and understanding the characteristics of their temperament. This will make it possible to identify the methods of activity that are most consistent with his natural qualities, natural talent.

Temperament and abilities. Both temperament and abilities are characterized by high stability. Of course, inclinations, the system of education and sensitive age play an important role in the formation of abilities. Abilities are manifested in the dynamics of the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities in the conditions of a particular activity.

1. individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another;
2. not any individual characteristics, but only those that are related to the success of any particular activity;
3. ability is irreducible to psychological formations, i.e., to knowledge, skills, and habits.

Based on these characteristics, the following definition of abilities is given. Abilities are individual psychological characteristics that are a condition for the successful implementation of a particular productive activity.

Abilities are divided into general, special and communication abilities. General abilities are understood as a system of individual mental properties that ensures productivity in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities for the implementation of various types of activities. The basis for the development of general abilities lies in cognitive (mental) processes.

Special abilities include such a system of personality traits that helps to achieve high results in any special field of activity (musical, stage, sports, mathematical, military leadership, etc.).

The ability to communicate presupposes a developed degree of socio-psychological adaptation, i.e., the active adaptation of the individual to the conditions of the new social environment. It manifests itself in the ability to exert a psychological influence on others, to convince them and win them over.

J. Strelyau investigated the relationship between the levels of intellectual abilities and the properties of temperament. The study gave a negative result. Correlation links between the levels of intellectual abilities and the properties of temperament were not revealed. This means that among individuals with a high level of intellectual abilities one can meet both sanguine and phlegmatic, both choleric and melancholic, or various combinations of these types of temperament.

Abilities are discovered in the process of mastering activities. They are closely related to the general orientation of the personality and the inclinations of a person to a particular activity.

Temperament and personality orientation. The orientation of a personality is a set of stable, independent of current situations, motives that orient a person's activity in accordance with his interests, inclinations, beliefs and ideals. Interests, inclinations, beliefs, ideals, etc. act as stable, basic motives. Together, these conscious motives form the worldview of the individual. An important role in shaping the orientation of the personality is played by unconscious motives, one of which is the psychological attitude. A psychological attitude is a readiness, unconscious by a person, to act in a certain way, ensuring a stable, purposeful nature of the course of activity. It manifests itself in the purposeful selective activity of a person when he anticipates a certain object or situation.

temperament and motivation. Motivation is the impulses that cause the activity of the organism and determine its direction. In the motivational sphere, the behavior of an individual is explained by a combination of internal and external causes of a psychological nature. How the motivational sphere of the personality manifests itself in educational activity can be judged from the following example: “Often we are convinced that the assessment of temperament in one particular situation does not correspond to the assessment of the same property in other conditions. For example, a student's work capacity, diagnosed by behavior in mathematics lessons, can be very different from the assessment of the same property in history lessons. So, in the first case, the student shows great efficiency, quickly, almost without rest, solves problems, fully concentrates on his actions and can work like this for a long time, without interruption. Analyzing all these manifestations, it should be recognized that we are dealing with a hardy, low-reactive individual. However, the assessment of the behavior of the same student in history lessons is completely different. He cannot concentrate on the subject, constantly looks tired, works slowly, is constantly distracted, as a result of which, naturally, he does not achieve such results as in mathematics.

A variety of activity motivation is achievement motivation. It is related to the individual's need to achieve success or avoid failure.

The theory of motivation to achieve success in various activities was developed by D. McClelland and D. Atkinson. According to this theory, people who are motivated to succeed set goals for themselves, the achievement of which is unequivocally regarded by them as success. They strive at all costs to achieve success in their activities, they are bold and decisive, expect to receive approval for actions aimed at achieving their goals. They are characterized by the mobilization of all their resources and focus on achieving their goals. People who are motivated to avoid failure behave quite differently. For them, the explicit goal in activity is not to succeed, but to avoid failure. A person motivated to avoid failure shows self-doubt, does not believe in the possibility of success, is afraid of criticism, does not feel pleasure from activities in which temporary failures are possible.

It follows from the foregoing that success-oriented individuals are able to correctly assess their capabilities, successes and failures, adequately assessing themselves. They have a realistic level of ambition. On the contrary, people who are focused on avoiding failure, inadequately evaluate themselves, which, in turn, leads to unrealistic claims (overestimated or underestimated). In behavior, this is manifested in the selection of only difficult or too easy goals, in increased anxiety, lack of confidence in strength, in a tendency to avoid competition, rivalry, they are not critical in assessing what has been achieved.

In general, the temperament, character, abilities and motivation of the individual belong to the same individual psychological characteristics, in which people differ significantly from each other. Taken together, these individual psychological characteristics constitute the subject of the psychology of individual differences.

Character and its features

A person is called “with character” if he exhibits such qualities as independence, consistency, independence from circumstances, will and perseverance, purposefulness and perseverance. On the contrary, a spineless person is called a person who goes with the flow, depends on circumstances, and does not show strong-willed qualities.

The formation of character is largely determined by the way of life of a person. As a person's lifestyle is formed, a corresponding character is formed. This happens at different levels of development of social groups (family, school, sports team, labor collective, etc.). Much here depends on which social groups are reference for a person. Character is manifested in the manner of behavior, in habits, deeds and actions. Such actions are always conscious, deliberate and, from the point of view of the individual, always justified. In groups of a high level of development (collectives) the most favorable opportunities for the formation of the best character traits are created.

In a social group, a person always interacts with other people. His actions and actions in a certain way affect others, cause responses. Not knowing his character and the character of others, a person can misinterpret the behavior of people and their actions. As a result, unreasonable grievances arise, unfair judgments about the actions of others.

Both character and temperament depend on the physiological characteristics of the individual, on the types of higher nervous activity. If temperament is basically a lifetime formation, fixed genetically, then the character is formed throughout a person's life.

The properties of temperament are hereditary, therefore, they are extremely difficult to change. Proceeding from this, a person's efforts should not be aimed at changing, but at identifying and understanding the features of his temperament. This makes it possible to identify those characterological properties that are inherent in one or another type of higher nervous activity.

Along with temperament, a certain connection of character exists with other personality traits, such as abilities, personality orientation, motivation, will. In the character of a person, individual traits can be distinguished, which in unity form an integral structure of character.

The basis for the classification of character can serve as a person's attitude to the world around him, to other people, to himself. On this basis, A.V. Petrovsky proposes to divide the main character traits into the following groups:

1. Character traits that manifest themselves in a person’s attitude towards other people (relatives and friends, work and study comrades, acquaintances and unfamiliar people, etc.): stable and unstable attachment, adherence to principles and unscrupulousness, sociability and isolation, responsiveness, etc.
2. Character traits that are manifested in a person’s attitude towards himself: pride, self-esteem, selflessness; or self-doubt, selfishness, egocentrism, etc.
3. Character traits that are found in a person’s attitude to business: conscientiousness and diligence, seriousness, enthusiasm, responsibility for the task assigned, concern for their results; or qualities opposite in meaning - dishonesty, irresponsibility, passivity, etc.
4. Character traits that manifest themselves in a person’s attitude to things: a person’s careful and careful attitude to his things, clothes, shoes, books, property in general, etc.

It is generally accepted that the most common character traits are located along the axes: strength - weakness, hardness - softness, integrity - inconsistency. Strength of character is the energy with which a person achieves his goals. When faced with difficulties, all the energy of a person with a strong character is directed to overcoming them, while with a weak character, most often this becomes impossible due to the instability of views and indecision, cowardice or cowardice. The firmness of character implies perseverance in achieving goals, defending views, etc., while softness of character is manifested in adaptation to changing conditions of life, in finding reasonable compromises in everyday situations. Such a trait as integrity means the manifestation of the main, leading features in achieving the goal, which to a large extent contributes to the formation of the individual's purposefulness. The inconsistency of character is manifested in the frequent change of leading and secondary character traits.

However, no matter how accurate and successful the portrait of a person, his character can be most fully described on the basis of his habitual actions and movements. Conscious and deliberate actions and deeds are the basis for describing the characterological features of the individual.

The national character is connected with the traditional forms of people's reactions to the corresponding everyday situations, with the established norms of behavior and activity. It is also a set of ways to respond in communication, formed on the basis of social values ​​both at the conscious and unconscious levels. Based on this, V.A. Sukharev and M.V. Sukharev under the national character is understood as something acquired, received in the process of contacts within a certain community of people throughout their centuries-old life. It is necessary to distinguish between national character and national style, which is understood as a manner of behavior typical of the inhabitants of a particular country. Thus, a Chinese living in the United States, to a certain extent, retains the features inherent in the Chinese national character, but his style will most likely be American. This is facilitated by the system of values ​​and the conditions in which a person works, as well as the fact that he considers himself a citizen of which country.

Here is what V.A. and M.V. Sukharev, for example, about the Swedish character: “The main feature of the Swedish character is diligence. Swedes are quite cautious and are usually reluctant to speak their mind. Somewhat more boring than other Europeans and more reserved than them. Swedes are considered non-contact and non-communicative people. Perhaps the very climate of Sweden has an impact on the isolation of people, contributes to the development of various psychoses. Swedes are afraid to show their emotions to others, especially mental anguish. They don't like to talk about themselves. But this is not snobbery, not the remnants of aristocracy, it's just non-contact. For a foreigner, it is the worst torture to be in a Swedish drawing room among people who say nothing interesting, to be stunned by the ensuing silence, to know that you should say something, but be afraid to say it the wrong way. If a Swede starts talking, it's hard to stop him, but it's almost impossible to make him talk."

And here is an excerpt from the description of the national character of the American:

“Americans do not like stiffness, they prefer comfortable casual clothes, they address each other simply, informally, even if there is a big difference in age and social status between the interlocutors. They love competition, appreciate achievements, records. Although their behavior is quite natural, from the outside it may seem overbearing, intrusive.

There are many classifications of character. The American psychologist Ernst Hartman proposed to build a classification of characters based on the thickness of a person's protective barriers. Such barriers are too permeable for some, almost "impregnable" for others. Those who, according to the results of the test, have thin mental boundaries, suffer more often than others, for example, from loud sounds, bright lights, etc., they are more sensitive in relationships. Persons with too thick boundaries of the psyche often experience difficulties in contacts with others. At the everyday level, these mental boundaries are called "thick-skinned - thin-skinned." "Thin-skinned" and "thick-skinned" have their own advantages and disadvantages. In communication, "thin-skinned" look at "thick-skinned" as dumb and boring, and they believe that "thin-skinned" are rather strange personalities, eccentrics.

• Psychology: personality and business