ANNOTATION

This article discusses the concepts of "cognitive activity" and "cognitive skills". Particular attention is paid to the problem of the formation of cognitive skills of younger students.

Keywords: cognitive activity, cognitive skills, the formation of cognitive skills, younger students.

Modern Russian education is aimed at creating the need for independent development of new knowledge, new forms of activity, the ability and readiness for self-education, self-improvement, and creative activity.

This is what the federal state educational standard of primary general education is aimed at. The standard establishes requirements for such educational results as the readiness and ability of students for self-development and self-education, motivation for learning and purposeful cognitive activity.

The problem of the development of cognitive activity is one of the most important problems of modern pedagogy. It acts as one of the most important conditions for the formation in students of the need to acquire new knowledge and master the ability of independent cognitive activity.

The relevance of this issue is determined by the fact that insufficient attention is paid to the issue of creating conditions for the formation of cognitive skills in pedagogical science and the practice of education, and this is the basis for the development of the personality of a younger student and education in general.

The leading activity in primary school age is educational activity, it is at this time that children develop skills:

Determine the purpose of the upcoming activity;

Plan your activities, focusing on its result.

Ability to achieve results;

Exercise self-control.

Based on this, cognitive activity is of great importance, it plays a big role in the development of younger students, and also stimulates learning activities.

The study of cognitive activity originates in philosophy. A great contribution to the study was made by Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, F. Bacon, Descartes, G.W.F. Hegel, K. Marx.

Cognitive activity is often called gnostic or cognitive activity. In American psychology, there is a special direction, which is called cognitive psychology.

In our country, cognitive activity began to be developed in order to improve the educational activity of students.

A huge contribution to the theory of educational and cognitive activity was made by B.G. Ananiev, V.V. Davydov, P.Ya. Galperin, Z.I. Kalmykova, N.A. N.F. Talyzina, B.D. Elkonin, L.R., G.I. Shchukin and other domestic scientists.

In the psychological and pedagogical literature there is no single approach to the definition of the concept of "cognitive activity". This concept is considered by various authors and there is no clear definition. This is due to the fact that the concepts of "teaching", "educational and cognitive activity", "cognitive activity" are considered as identical.

In the works of G.I. Shchukina “cognitive activity” is considered as an activity that provides knowledge about the world around us, forms the ability to organize, direct actions to solve certain cognitive problems, develops the ability to think, instills mental work skills.

A.N. Leontiev defines cognitive activity as "a set of information processes and motivation, as a directed, selective activity of search and research processes that underlie the acquisition and processing of information." .

A brief definition of the concept was given by N.A. Polovnikova, "purposeful processes expressing the active attitude of students to mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as ways to obtain them."

V.A. Belikov defines cognitive activity as "an element of holistic learning, which is a purposeful organized or independent interaction of a student with the surrounding reality, the result of which is his mastery at the level of reproduction or creativity with a system of scientific knowledge and methods of activity." [ 1, p. 82]

Having considered the essence of the concept of "cognitive activity", we will reveal its structure.

According to A.N. Leontiev, the structure includes "need, motive, goal, actions and operations"

G.I. Schukina gives a detailed analysis of the structure and highlights "motives, purpose, learning activities and operations based on the content of learning, the result" [6, p. 49].

A necessary condition for the cognitive activity of younger students is the formation of cognitive skills. Skills contribute to the performance of activities, are formed on the basis of knowledge and skills.

An important role in the study of skills is played by the theoretical foundations of the psychology of activity, developed by B. G. Ananiev, G. S. Kostyuk, A. N. Leontiev, S. L. Rubinshtein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, D. B. Elkonin, P. Ya. Galperin, V. V. Davydov.

Scientists consider cognitive skills as the ability to independently acquire knowledge. They help to firmly assimilate knowledge on the subject, promote cognitive activity, independence and accelerate the process of achieving the goal.

There are several classifications of cognitive skills, mainly researchers distinguish intellectual, practical, organizational and control (evaluative) skills. A.V. Usova subdivides into skills of a practical nature and skills of a cognitive nature.

When determining cognitive skills, we proceeded primarily from the analysis of the main sources of knowledge of younger students, as well as the classification of cognitive skills of such researchers as A.V. Usov and A.A. Bobrov. They attributed to the main cognitive skills: the ability to work with educational and popular science literature and, on this basis, independently acquire and deepen knowledge; the ability to observe and draw conclusions based on it; the ability to independently model and build hypotheses; the ability to independently set up an experiment and, on its basis, gain new knowledge; the ability to explain observed facts on the basis of existing theoretical knowledge, to predict the consequences of theories.

In modern pedagogical science, one should also not forget about the requirements that the federal state educational standard of primary general education establishes for the results of students.

Analysis of the studied sources allows us to identify the following cognitive skills:

Work with textbooks and other information sources, such as Internet resources, dictionaries, reference books, additional literature, etc.;

Conduct observations, simulations, set up simple experiments;

Work with information, draw up diagrams, tables, plans, graphs;

Find, process and use the necessary information;

Generate new knowledge using existing information.

Since cognitive skills are aimed at searching, obtaining and transforming information, we characterize them within the framework of subject education.

Cognitive skills are necessary for the development of cognitive activity. Soviet teachers N.K. Krupskaya and K.D. Ushinsky spoke about the need to form cognitive skills and schooling should be aimed not only at informing students, but also at the formation of cognitive skills.

Any skills are formed only in practical activities. The main component of any activity is an action - a process subordinated to a specific goal, a result that must be achieved. Actions are made up of operations, i.e. ways to carry out the action.

In the process of forming cognitive skills, the following stages are distinguished: motivational, indicative, performing, control.

For the successful formation of skills, it is necessary to take into account not only the stages of formation, but also to outline a system of exercises and training.

According to many researchers, the implementation of interdisciplinary connections and the variety of forms of organization of training sessions accelerates the process of forming cognitive skills. The research and project activity of students also contributes to the formation of cognitive skills. In this activity, the ability to learn and the ability to organize their activities are improved - the ability to accept, maintain goals and follow them in activities, plan their activities, monitor and evaluate them, interact with the teacher and peers.

The analysis of scientific psychological and pedagogical research indicates the necessity and possibility of the formation of cognitive skills. The development of the personality of a younger student will depend on the success of the formed skills.

It is necessary to create conditions for the formation of cognitive skills, as well as to implement in educational practice. The organization of work on the formation of cognitive skills will make a great contribution to the solution of the planned results of mastering the basic general education program of primary general education.

Bibliography:

Belikov V.A. Education. Activity. Personality: Monograph / V.A. Belikov - M.: Academy of Natural Sciences, 2010. - 164 p.
Leontiev A. H. Activity. Consciousness. Personality / A.H. Leontiev. - M.: Politizdat, 1975. - 115 p.
Polovnikova N.A. Study of the process of formation of cognitive activity of schoolchildren in teaching: dis. ON THE. Polovnikova doctor ped. Sciences. - Kazan, 1976. - 483 p.
Usova A. V. Formation of general educational and cognitive skills in students in the process of studying subjects of the natural science cycle: a textbook. - Chelyabinsk: Fakel, 1997. - 34 p.
Usova A. V., Bobrov A. A. Formation of learning skills in students. - M.: Knowledge, 1987. -78 p.
Schukina G.I. Activation of cognitive activity of students in the educational process. - M., 1979 - 250 p.
Federal State Educational Standard of Primary General Education [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_96801/ (date of access: 03/20/2018)

Formation of educational and cognitive skills.

Work with text.

The study of subjects of the natural cycle causes great difficulties for many students. The reason lies in the inability to work independently with a textbook, independently set experiments and solve problems. To the question "What do you consider necessary to do in order to improve progress in the study of physics, chemistry, biology?" more than 30% of the students surveyed wrote that they should be taught to work independently.

Research conducted in the late 1960s of the last century by psychologists and didactics, have shown that for successful learning, the teacher must be oriented not only to message students of the system ready knowledge, but also on formation they have systems : skills should be formed in the process of assimilation of scientific concepts, laws and theories.

1. cognitive called skills through which a person acquires knowledge independently. For students, the main sources of knowledge are textbooks, observations, experiments, and measurements. These skills are called general. The concept of " general learning skills”- these are speech skills, the ability to read and write (common to all disciplines). Measuring, computational and graphic skills (common for the disciplines of the natural and mathematical cycle). The ability to observe and experiment (common to the disciplines of the natural cycle - physics, chemistry, biology, natural history, physical geography).

2. For the successful formation of skills to perform a particular action, it is necessary to single out individual steps, the sequence of their implementation and outline a system of exercises.

The implementation of complex actions is carried out in stages, they distinguish: the motivational basis of the action, indicative, performing and control.

It is possible, based on the didactic goal, to distinguish five types of learning skills

The main skill of students is the ability to work with printed text.

Basic skills that must be formed in certain classes.

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Formation of educational and cognitive skills.

Work with text.

Research conducted in the late 1960s of the last century by psychologists and didactics, have shown that for successful learning, the teacher must be oriented not only to message students of the system ready-made knowledge, but also on the formation of their system cognitive skills: skills should be formed in the process of assimilation of scientific concepts, laws and theories.

1. cognitivecalled skills through which a person acquires knowledge independently. For students, the main sources of knowledge are textbooks, observations, experiments, and measurements. These skills are called common . The concept of " general learning skills”- these are speech skills, the ability to read and write (common to all disciplines). Measuring, computational and graphic skills (common for the disciplines of the natural and mathematical cycle). The ability to observe and experiment (common to the disciplines of the natural cycle - physics, chemistry, biology, natural history, physical geography).

2. For the successful formation of skills to perform a particular action, it is necessary to single out individual steps, the sequence of their implementation and outline a system of exercises.

The implementation of complex actions is carried out in stages, they distinguish: the motivational basis of the action, indicative, performing and control.

It is possible, based on the didactic goal, to distinguish five types of educational skills : cognitive, experimental, organizational, self-control, evaluative.

Main Skill students is the ability to work with printed text.

Basic skills that must be formed in certain classes.

3. N.K. Krupskaya attached paramount importance to working with a book. She formulated the rules of this work as follows: “... First task when reading, it is to understand and assimilate the material read. Second task - Think about what you read. Third - make extracts necessary for memory from what has been read. And finally fourth the task is to give yourself an answer, what the new book has taught you…”

Basic skills 1-7 are formed starting from the 1st grade, however, for many graduates of basic school, skills 4, 5 turn out to be unformed: children often find it difficult to answer the questions proposed at the end of the paragraph. As for the answers to the questions proposed by the teacher on the content of the textbook paragraph, most students prefer a literal retelling of the text. Attempts to highlight the main thing are often futile, because, according to students, "everything in the text is important."

The ultimate goal of the teacher when working with the student is the formation of the student as a person who is ready to independently carry out educational activities.

Independence- this is the child's ability to acquire knowledge on his own under the guidance of a teacher or without him, the ability to choose the main thing, to analyze what he has read.

Academic independence- this is, first of all, the ability to go beyond the boundaries of the known, memorized and move on - into the unknown.

Under the independent work of students, they usually understand any active activity of students organized by the teacher, aimed at fulfilling the set didactic goal, in the time specially allotted for this: the search for knowledge, their comprehension, consolidation and development of skills, generalization and systematization of knowledge.

To turn knowledge into skills and abilities, it is necessary for students to act. Active educational and cognitive activity involves practical actions of students. Knowledge cannot be transferred in finished form, it is acquired meaningfully in the process of certain actions, while it is important that students perform these actions on their own, and the degree of independence in the performance of work from class to class should increase.

A special place in the organization of independent work of students is occupied by those classes from which each stage of education begins. Among these classes, grade 5 can be noted, since the educational process here has its own characteristics:

1) From the 5th grade, subject education begins, the number of subjects, the amount of information increases; applied orientation of each subject;

2) Pupils of the 5th grade have a sufficient stock of knowledge in mathematics that is complete. This knowledge serves as a basis not only for acquiring new knowledge, but also for their independent application.

3) In the 5th grade mathematics course, the role of evidence is enhanced; reasoning, students get acquainted with special mathematical turns of speech.

4) In the 5th grade, students read freely, so it is advisable to teach them to work independently with a textbook.

Book work.

Independent work of students, i.e. their work in the absence of a teacher, or at least without recourse to his help for some period of time, is an essential part of the whole work of studying mathematics. Many questions of the school course of mathematics can be successfully studied by students on their own with the help of a textbook, since the textbook has a teaching function, in many respects similar to the function of a teacher. But it depends on the teacher to make the process of acquiring knowledge with the help of a textbook more successful - to teach students to independently acquire knowledge, to teach them to learn.

The most common are the following types of work with the textbook:

Reading text aloud
Reading the text to yourself
Replay content read aloud
Dividing the read text into semantic parts; first, the teacher does this, then the students are asked to divide the text into semantic parts and come up with a short title for each of them - the plan is being taught.
Make your own reading plan.
Work with drawings and illustrations.
Work on the concept, term.
Working with the table of contents and index
One of the ways to organize the work of students with a mathematics textbook is to form the methods of this work.

General methods of working with a mathematics textbook

Find task by table of contents
Think about the title
Read the content of the paragraph (paragraph)
Select all unfamiliar words and expressions and find out their meaning.
Ask and answer questions as you read
Highlight (write out, underline) the main concepts
Highlight the main theorems or rules
Study definitions of concepts
Learn theorems (rules)
Parse illustrations (drawing, diagram, drawing)
Read the examples in the text and come up with your own.
Do your own proof of the theorem
Make diagrams, drawings, tables, drawings using your notation
Remember the material using memorization techniques (retelling according to a plan, drawing or diagram, mnemonic techniques, repetition of difficult places, etc.)
Answer specific questions in the text

Preparing and conducting written independent work.

1) Independent work of students must be organized at all levels of the educational process, including in the process of assimilation of new material.

2) Students need to be put in an active position, make them direct participants in the learning process.

3) To activate the mental activity of students, it is necessary to give them work that requires feasible mental stress.

When planning independent work, it is necessary to take into account the pace of work of students. In order to save time in the lesson and better organize the work, it is advisable for the teacher to do the work himself first, in the course of doing it he can understand what elements can slow down or speed up the work of students.

Control.

Serious attention needs to be paid control results of independent work. No matter how simple the completed task is, it must be analyzed. The nature, completeness and content of the work performed are evaluated.

The best way to analyze independent work is in the form of a discussion of its progress and results. To work on typical mistakes, special time is allotted in the next lesson.

Mutual control.

When performing independent work, its verification can be carried out with the help of consultants appointed by the teacher from among the well-performing students. Each group of students is assigned a consultant. Having completed the task of their version, the consultants receive instructions from the teacher and, as the rest of the students complete the work, they check them, explaining the mistakes made.

self control is an integral part of any type of human activity and is aimed at preventing or detecting mistakes already committed by him. In other words, with the help of self-control, a person every time realizes the correctness of his actions, including in the game, study, work.

For the first time, it is possible to familiarize schoolchildren in the process of teaching mathematics with all the basic methods of self-control already in the fifth grade. Therefore, in the process of teaching mathematics in grades V-VI, due attention should be paid to the development of students' self-control.

To develop the ability to exercise self-control. For example, do:

Correlation between results and reality.
Correlating the result obtained with the given conditions in the problem and comparing it with the originally expected result is a test simply for reasons of common sense.
Carrying out the calculations in reverse order.
Solving the problem in a different way and comparing the results.
Checking the progress of solving the problem, paying attention to the following points:

Independent work as a teaching method can be used at all stages of the process of teaching mathematics. But in all cases, it is necessary to teach students how to work independently.

Independent work is a necessary condition for the development of students' thinking, education of independence and cognitive activity of students, instilling skills in educational work.

Working with a textbook must necessarily pursue a specific goal, which the teacher first tells the students, and later they themselves will begin to set themselves the goals of reading the textbook, paragraph, chapter.

Main goalsreading a textbook paragraph can be: acquaintance with the information contained in the selected fragment of the text, understanding the information, memorizing, using information in various educational and life situations, confirming what has been studied or what was previously known, finding examples, confirming scientific facts, working with illustrations ( drawings, drawings, diagrams).

Depending on the goal, the teacher should organize the reading of the paragraph in one of the ways. Let's highlight the ways of reading: anticipatory reading, in-depth reading, selective reading, reading-scanning, reading aloud, reading to oneself, reading by roles, reading-studying, browsing.

From my experience in the 5th grade, I consider it necessary to include elements of teaching reading in the mathematics lesson. I suggest reading the text aloud in parts, while poorly reading children get small and easy parts, children with unstable attention - reading or repeating the rules. In modern mathematics textbooks for grades 5-6, important elements that carry a semantic load, rules, algorithms for performing actions are highlighted in different colors and fonts. At the very first lessons, I show how to expressively read the text, formulate the rules, and in the future I constantly achieve the same expressive reading from the students. Such a selection of the main thing should teach children to first see the semantic parts, and then find and highlight them in the text of the textbook.

I consider it very important to work with students on questions to the text. This work is needed, first of all, in order to later teach students to work with the key moments of the text. Questions to the paragraph help students develop the skills of self-composing questions for subsequent self-study of the text. Working with these questions at the end of the lesson will help to summarize the lesson and repeat the studied theoretical material again, you need to show the students that when doing homework, you must first repeat the explanatory text of the textbook and answers to questions to it, and only after that proceed with the written assignment.

In my work, I use and advise children to use a simple algorithm when working with text:

2. Comprehend (retell the main idea aloud)

3. Answer questions (out loud)

In this case, gaps in knowledge, i.e. shortcomings, will immediately become apparent. Return to the text again, and eliminate the gaps.

In the 7th grade, during home preparation, they began to use a technique by reading a paragraph to answer questions to it and write down 2-3 sentences in writing with the main idea of the answer to each question. If there are many questions, I highlight the 3-4 most important ones. The picture has noticeably improved, there are more people willing to answer the question, even among those who are mostly silent in the classroom.

In grades 5-6 I pay a lot of attention self-control I require you to perform a preliminary estimate of the result, check with another action or solve the problem in another way in order to avoid frequent mistakes, especially when working with decimal fractions, at the stage of multiplying and dividing decimal fractions.

When implementing one of the above curricula or developing their own curriculum, the teacher carefully considers the basic knowledge and skills of students that they must form in the process of learning under this program.

In addition to knowledge, skills and abilities, students must develop personality traits in themselves: ways of mental actions, self-management skills, emotional and moral, aesthetic and activity-practical properties. All these groups of personality traits merge together, forming competent person in the field of economic knowledge.

1st group of skills. Knowledge, skills and abilities(ZUN). ZUN classification.

I. By localization of reflection:

1. Individual knowledge is the knowledge of a particular person, his personal experience in studying the world around him, labor relations, communication.

2. Public knowledge is knowledge developed by generations of predecessors; material, spiritual values recognized by all.

For example, in the program of B.A. Raisberg and A.S. Prutchenkov “Introduction to Economics. Fundamentals of economics and entrepreneurship. Fundamentals of Business" noted: what students should know (public knowledge should become individual):

- what are economic laws, their specific differences from the laws of the physical world;

II. According to the form of reflection:

1. Sign and verbal, which are presented in the form of signs, in the form of linguistic oral and written forms, in the form of formulas, theoretical rules and formulations.

2. Figurative, which are represented by specific images and can be perceived by the senses.

For example, the image of an entrepreneur, banker, manager, their appearance, demeanor.

3. Real, which exist in the objects of labor, literature, art.

For example, a portrait or sculpture of a banker.

4. Procedural, which are reflected in the current activities of people, in their practical skills, in various technologies, as a result of the labor process.

For example, in the program B.A. Raisberg and A.S. Prutchenkov "Introduction to the economy. Fundamentals of economics and entrepreneurship. Business Basics” reflects that students should know:

- basic concepts and terms: gross national product, wages, profitability, unemployment, labor productivity, budget, taxes, banks, credit.

III. On a mental level:

1. Recognition of knowledge.

2. Reproduction of knowledge.

3. Understanding knowledge.

4. Application of knowledge in practice.

5. Automatic actions that are carried out at the level of intuition, unconscious, involuntary performance of actions.

6. Attitude to knowledge, which reflects one's own view, one's point of view on an object or phenomenon.

7. The need, which is expressed in the desire to learn, apply knowledge in practice and develop a stable skill in applying knowledge.

For example. Students should be able to:

- analyze the causes of differences in the level of wages;

- distinguish between sources and components of income;

- distinguish between the unemployed and the unemployed. (Program of L.L. Lyubimov, A.A. Mitskevich and others “Educational area “Economics”).

IV. By area and subject of knowledge Keywords: humanitarian, mathematical, philosophical, animate and inanimate nature, society, technology, art.

2nd group of skills. Ways of mental actions (COURT). COURT classification.

I. According to the nature of the means of thinking: subject-effective, visual-figurative, abstract, intuitive.

For example. Money, functions of money: unit of account, medium of exchange, means of accumulation. (Program of S. Ravichev, T. Protasevich "Modern Economics").

II. According to the process logic: comparison, analysis, abstraction, generalization, synthesis, classification, induction, deduction, inversion, reflection, antipathy, hypothesis, experiment, verification, etc.).

For example. Distinguish and compare organizational and legal forms of entrepreneurship. (Program of L.L. Lyubimov, A.A. Mitskevich and others “Educational area “Economics”).

III. In the form of the result: creation of a new image, definition of a concept, judgment, conclusion, theorem, regularity, law, theory.

For example. Students find out the reasons for the emergence of the economic functions of the state, discover the reasons for the inefficiency of state activities. (Program of L.L. Lyubimov and N.A. Rannev “Fundamentals of economic knowledge”).

IV. By type of logic: rational-empirical and reasonable-theoretical.

V. According to the way of work:

1. Skills and skills of planning educational activities. The student is aware of the tasks of the educational process, knows how to set goals, has the skills of a rational way to complete the task, thinks through the algorithm of activities, can plan activities for the day, week, month, year, etc.

2. Skills and abilities to organize their own learning activities. The student knows how to organize his rational mode of work, can equip the workplace, possesses the skills and methods of mental activity.

3. Skills and skills of perception of information. The student is able to work with various sources of information, has the skills to work with a book, dictionary, computer, manages his own attention, observation, memorization and reproduction.

4. Skills and skills of mental activity. The student comprehends the educational material, highlights the main and essential, analyzes and synthesizes, abstracts and concretizes, classifies, generalizes, proves, builds a story, argues the answer, formulates conclusions and conclusions, writes essays, solves problems and problems.

5. Skills and skills of assessment and comprehension. The student has the skills of self-control and mutual control of the results of educational activities, understands his achievements, evaluates economic, environmental, aesthetic, ethical phenomena, is able to check the correctness and strength of theoretical knowledge and practical skills, and conducts a reflexive analysis.

For example. Students must:

- possess the general cultural skills of a modern entrepreneur;

- be able to use various sources of information: reference books, legal documents, scientific literature;

- be able to draw up the simplest documents for doing business;

- be able to engage in self-education, using the necessary literature. (Program of V.F. Merzlyakov “Fundamentals of Business”).

3rd group of skills. Self-governing mechanisms of personality (SUM). SUM classification.

1. Needs. Needs are the fundamental properties of an individual, expressing his need for something and being a source of mental strength and human activity. Needs are divided into material (food, clothing, housing), spiritual (aesthetic pleasures), physiological and social (in communication, work, social activities, knowledge, self-determination, self-affirmation, self-education, self-education, self-improvement).

2. Orientation. Orientation is a set of motives that are stable and relatively independent of situations, orienting the actions and deeds of the individual. It includes interests, views, social attitudes, value orientations, beliefs, moral and ethical principles, worldview.

3. Self-concept. The self-concept of a person is a stable, conscious and experienced system of ideas of a person about himself, on the basis of which he builds his behavior. The self-concept includes a system of human qualities: I like, I am capable, I am needed, I can, I create, I know, I manage, I own.

For example. Students must answer the questions:

- whether the desire of people to increase prosperity is the driving force behind the economic development of mankind;

- is it profitable to be honest;

- what a paradox lies at the heart of the market economy. (Program of V.I. Lipsits and L.V. Antonova "Fundamentals of Economic Knowledge").

4th group of skills. Emotional-moral sphere (SES). SEN classification.

1. Aesthetic education: a sense of beauty, the ability to see and understand beauty, familiarization with literature, music, art, dance, theater, cinema.

2. Education of moral qualities: freedom, dignity, honor, responsibility, conscience, shame, love, kindness, economic and ecological culture, will, virtue.

For example. Emotional relationships. Compliment rules. Culture of relations between men and women. Table culture. The appearance of a business person. (Program of V.F. Merzlyakov “Fundamentals of Business”).

5th group of skills. Activity-practical sphere (PSD). SDP classification.

1. Labor knowledge, skills and abilities: natural sciences, polytechnics, operational skills, craftsmanship, work culture.

2. Diligence: activity, diligence, need, readiness, consciousness, diligence, will.

3. Labor morality: attitude to work, relationships in the process of activity, career orientation, incentives, values, attitude to the results of activity.

For example. Workshops: Am I fit to be a manager. How to get and use a loan. How to calculate the price of an item. Assessment of the expected risk. (Program of B.A. Raisberg and A.S. Prutchenkov “Introduction to the economy. Fundamentals of economics and entrepreneurship. Fundamentals of business”).

The curriculum in economics, which takes into account the knowledge, skills and abilities of students, the ways of their mental actions, the mechanisms of self-government by the individual, the emotional-moral and activity-practical spheres, is aimed at development of personality competencies in the field of economics.

Academician of the Russian Academy of Education A.V. USOVA,
State Pedagogical University,
Chelyabinsk

Formation of educational and cognitive skills
in the process of studying subjects of the natural cycle

Research conducted in the late 1960s of the last century by psychologists and didactics, have shown that for successful learning, the teacher must be oriented not only to message students of the system ready knowledge, but also on formation they have systems cognitive skills: skills should be formed in the process of assimilation of scientific concepts, laws and theories.

1. cognitive called skills through which a person acquires knowledge independently. When determining the composition of such skills, one should proceed primarily from an analysis of the main sources of knowledge. In the subjects of the natural cycle (physics, chemistry, biology), the main sources of knowledge for students are textbooks, observations, experiments, and measurements. These skills are called general. For their successful formation, purposeful and coordinated work of the entire teaching staff of the educational institution, clear and systematic control over the activities of teachers is necessary.

The concept of " general learning skills"is not adequate to the concept" generalized skills". The first ones mean skills common to all academic disciplines or for a certain cycle of disciplines. These are speech skills, the ability to read and write (common to all disciplines), measuring, computational and graphic skills (common to the disciplines of the natural and mathematical cycle), the ability to observe and experiment (common to the disciplines of the natural cycle - physics, chemistry, biology, natural history). , physical geography).

Under certain conditions and using the appropriate methodology, general learning skills rise to the level of generalized ones. An important characteristic of a generalized skill is the property of a wide transfer, formed on the specific material of a subject (for example, physics), it can be used in the study of other subjects.

Research psychologists ( A.N.Leontiev, P.Ya.Galperin, N.F.Talyzina) showed that all skills are formed only in activity. under activity understand the process of interaction with the environment. Psychologists classify activities in different ways, but most distinguish cognitive activity(teaching) and transformative(work). The main thing that distinguishes one activity from another is the difference in their subjects. It is the object of activity that gives it a certain direction.

The main component of any activity is action- a process subordinated to a specific goal, a result that must be achieved. Actions are made up of operations, i.e. ways to implement actions. Initially, each operation is formed as an action subordinated to a specific goal. But then it can be included in another action that is more complex in terms of operational composition, becoming one of the ways to perform it, i.e. operation. For example, a 1st grade student first learns to write sticks, hooks, rounds, and this constitutes an action for him. Then he moves on to writing letters. Now writing letters is an action for him, and writing individual elements of letters is operations. In the future, from writing individual letters, the student proceeds to actions for writing words, divided into syllables. Now the writing of individual letters and syllables that make up a word is an operation, and so on.

When studying physics, the student acquires the ability to perform the action of including an ammeter in a simple electrical circuit. On this basis, the student masters a new, more complex action - measuring the current strength in a common circuit and in separate branches of a parallel connection of conductors, which allows him to compare them, draw conclusions about the patterns of this connection. The process of including an ammeter in the circuit is now an operation for it.

The most important part of the psychological mechanism of action is indicative basis. Psychologists distinguish three types of orienting basis: actions and, accordingly, three orientations in a task. Each of them uniquely determines the result and course of action.

indicative basis first type constitute the images of action and its product. No instructions are given on how to perform the action. Students are looking for ways to complete the task "blindly", by trial and error. As a result, the task can be completed, but the action with which it is completed remains unstable: when conditions change, it almost does not work.

Indicative basis second type contains not only examples of actions, but also all instructions on how to correctly perform them with new material. In this case, learning goes quickly, without errors. The student acquires a certain ability to analyze the material from the point of view of the upcoming action, and the latter exhibits a noticeable resistance to changing conditions and being transferred to new tasks. However, this transfer is limited by the presence of elements that are identical to the elements of already mastered knowledge. So, frontal laboratory work in physics and chemistry is still being carried out in schools: the teacher indicates the entire procedure for performing laboratory work, shows methods for handling instruments. The students are left with the reproductive activity of reproducing the actions and operations shown by the teacher.

Indicative basis third type differs in that here the first place is given to systematic training in such an analysis of new tasks, which will allow reference points and conditions for the correct execution of tasks. According to these instructions, the corresponding actions are formed. The teacher here must create such conditions under which the student is encouraged to independently compose the orienting basis of the action and act on it. In this case, students make significantly fewer mistakes, and they occur mainly at the very initial stage. The skill formed in this way reveals the property of a wide transfer to the performance of many tasks.

2. For the successful formation of skills to perform a particular action, it is necessary, first of all, for the teacher himself to analyze the structure of the action, to clearly imagine what elements (operations) make up its implementation. Having singled out the individual elements (steps), it is necessary to determine the most appropriate sequence for their implementation and outline a system of exercises that ensure the students' confident, almost automatic performance of simple actions, then organize their implementation.

Complex actions are carried out in stages. When teaching according to the third type, they distinguish: the motivational basis of the action, indicative, performing and control. In the process of forming generalized skills, the following stages are distinguished: students' awareness of the importance of mastering the skills to perform a given action is the motivational basis of the action; determination of the purpose of the action; clarification of the scientific foundations of action; determination of the main structural components of the action (operations), common to a wide range of tasks and independent of the conditions in which the action is performed (such structural components act as strong points of the action); determination of the most rational sequence of operations that make up the action, i.e. building a model (algorithm) of action (through collective and independent searches); organization of the implementation of the largest number of exercises in which the actions of students are subject to control by the teacher; teaching students self-control methods; organization of exercises that require students to be able to independently perform this action (under changing conditions); the use of this skill when performing an action to master new, more complex skills in more complex activities. The implementation of interdisciplinary connections contributes to improving the quality of assimilation of fundamental concepts, accelerates the process of formation of cognitive skills and skills of a practical nature.

It is possible, based on the didactic goal, to distinguish five types of learning skills: cognitive, experimental, organizational, self-control, evaluative. Let us consider the methodology for the formation of educational and cognitive skills and, above all, the ability to work with printed text, because for students, a book (textbook, teaching aids, reference literature, additional literature) is the main source of knowledge, especially since in the context of a rapid increase in the pace of scientific and technological progress, each person needs to continuously replenish and deepen his knowledge.

Basic skills in working with printed text,
that need to be formed in the specified classes

3. N.K. Krupskaya attached paramount importance to working with a book. She formulated the rules of this work in the following way: “... The first task when reading is to understand and assimilate the material read. The second task is to think about what you have read. The third is to make extracts necessary for memory from what has been read. And finally, the fourth task is to give yourself an answer, what the new book has taught you...” ( Krupskaya N.K. Selected works. - M .: Education, 1965). These rules played a big role at the stage of self-education. In the 60s. of the last century, the first publications appeared on the methods of developing the ability to work with a book among secondary school students ( V.P. Esipov, A.V. Usova) and university students ( E.N. Golant). The composition of the skills that students need to form in working with the book are presented in the table.

Skills 1-7 are formed starting from the 1st grade, however, for many graduates of basic school, skills 4, 5 turn out to be unformed: children often find it difficult to answer the questions proposed at the end of the paragraph. As for the answers to the questions proposed by the teacher on the content of the textbook paragraph, most students prefer a literal retelling of the text. Attempts to highlight the main thing are often futile, because, according to students, "everything in the text is important."

The following describes developed by us step-by-step the formation of the ability to work independently with educational and additional literature, based on a structural and logical analysis of the content of subjects of the natural cycle, which makes it possible to distinguish them as general major interrelated structural elements knowledge scientific facts, concepts, laws And theories. Based on the analysis of new scientific facts new scientific concepts are introduced. Laws express essential connections between concepts. scientific theories operate systems concepts, i.e. also express connections between concepts, but connections broader than those expressing laws.

To develop a general ability to work with educational and additional literature, knowledge of structural elements is important. Students of the 7th grade by the end of the first half of the year should know them and highlight them in the text, because. by this time they already have an idea about the molecular-kinetic theory, about the laws (Pascal's law, the law of communicating vessels, the law of Archimedes): they have already formed a number of concepts (matter, substance, mass, density of matter, force, speed, pressure) . They are familiar with a number of scientific facts, on the basis of the analysis of which concepts new to them were introduced, for example, such facts as the constancy of the ratio of the mass of a given substance to its volume (on this basis, the concept of density is introduced); equality of the ratios of the segments of the path traveled by the body to time (on this basis, the concept of uniform motion and speed of uniform rectilinear motion is introduced).

To develop the ability to single out the elements of scientific knowledge in the text, it is necessary to systematically offer students after reading a new paragraph the question: what structural elements of the system of scientific knowledge are contained in the read text?

It is also important to teach how to classify concepts. Students should know the main groups of natural science concepts: structural forms of matter - substance and field; properties of bodies, matter and fields; phenomena (physical, chemical, biological); quantities that quantitatively characterize the properties of the body and phenomena; devices, machines, installations.

In senior grades (9th-11th), it is desirable to single out into an independent group a special class of quantities that play a special role in the process of scientific knowledge - fundamental physical constants. Common to all of them is immutability within certain limits of applicability, independence from conditions. For example, the boiling point of a liquid depends on the type of substance and on external pressure. The specific heat capacity of a substance, the coefficient of friction, etc., depend on external conditions, but the values of the speed of light in vacuum, of an elementary electric charge do not depend on external conditions. According to modern data, their values are constant for any part of the Universe and do not change with time. Such quantities are usually called fundamental, world, universal.

When one or another concept is introduced, it must be emphasized that it characterizes which group it belongs to. When studying quantities, it is necessary to emphasize what a given quantity characterizes: what property of bodies (substances) or what phenomenon. For example: current strength - magnitude characterizing phenomenon(electric current), and resistance - magnitude characterizing property substances.

It is not enough only to develop the ability to determine in the text the main elements of scientific knowledge systems, it is also necessary to reveal the general requirements for the assimilation of each of them, to explain what you need to know about the structural forms of matter, about phenomena, about quantities, about laws, about theories, etc. regardless of the field of knowledge they belong to.

The formulated recommendations are written out on posters or cards. Many teachers recommend that students rewrite them in notebooks, for which 6-8 free pages are allocated at the end of the notebook. These recommendations play a role general plans when studying educational material and when constructing answers, because their structure does not depend on the particular features of the material. For example, the plan for studying phenomena is common to physical, chemical, and biological phenomena. The same applies to plans for the study of instruments, laws and theories.

The following are examples of generic plans. We note right away that they should be introduced gradually, while studying the relevant questions of the course. A plan about phenomena - after the students already have some experience in studying the phenomenon, a plan about laws - after the students become familiar with a number of laws, etc. It is undesirable to give ready-made plans. It is much more useful to organize the collective work of students to develop them: “What does it mean to “study a phenomenon”?”, “What does it mean to “study a law”?” and so on. Remembering previously studied concepts, laws, theories, the teacher gradually leads students to the formulation of questions during the conversation, then these questions are arranged in accordance with the logic of scientific knowledge. In the course of the conversation, the questions of the plan are written down on the board, and after they are all formulated, the teacher recommends rewriting them in a notebook and using them when studying new material, when preparing homework, when questioning during a lesson, when listening to the answers of their comrades at the blackboard, when the teacher explains the material. the teacher may deliberately omit questions when explaining the material and turn to the class: “Have I covered all the questions? Did I forget something?" students, noticing gaps, remind them of them. In such cases, you can offer to find the answer yourself - in the textbook. If someone immediately expresses a desire to respond, such an initiative must be fully encouraged and supported.

In all cases, the use of plans of a generalized nature contributes to the activation of the educational and cognitive activity of students, makes the work with the educational text purposeful, deeply conscious and, what is especially important, wean from memorizing the text, from cramming, introduces an element of creativity into the educational activity.

Examples of generalized plans(what you need to know about...)

Phenomena Study Plan

1. External signs of phenomena (signs by which the phenomenon is detected).

2. Conditions under which the phenomenon proceeds (occurs).

3. The essence of the phenomenon, the mechanism of its occurrence (explanation of the phenomenon on the basis of modern scientific theories).

4. Definition of the phenomenon.

5. The connection of this phenomenon with others (or factors on which the course of the phenomenon depends).

6. Quantitative characteristics of the phenomenon (values that characterize the phenomenon, the relationship between the quantities, formulas expressing this relationship).

7. Use of the phenomenon in practice.

8. Ways to prevent the harmful effects of the phenomenon on humans and the environment.

Quantity study plan

1. What phenomenon and property of bodies (substances) characterizes this value.

2. Definition of quantity.

3. Determinative formula (for a derived quantity, a formula expressing the relationship of a given quantity with others).

4. What value - scalar or vector.

5. Unit of magnitude in SI.

6. Methods for measuring a quantity

Law Study Plan

1. The relationship between what phenomena or quantities does this law express?

2. The wording of the law.

3. When and who first formulated this law?

4. Mathematical expression of the law.

5. Experiments confirming the justice of the law.

6. Accounting and use of the law in practice.

7. Limits of application of the law.

Theory study plan

1. Experienced facts that served as the basis for the development of the theory (empirical basis, foundation of the theory).

2. Basic concepts of the theory.

3. Basic provisions (postulates, principles or laws) of the theory, the core of the theory.

4. Mathematical apparatus of the theory (basic equations).

5. The range of phenomena explained by theory.

6. Phenomena and properties of bodies (particles), conclusions predicted by theory.

Instrument study plan

1. Purpose of the device.

2. The principle of operation of the device (what phenomenon or law is the basis for the operation of the device).

3. Scheme of the device device (its main parts, their purpose).

4. Rules for using the device.

5. Scope of the device.

Formation of skills to measure is one of the important skills common to physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics. The linear dimensions of bodies, areas, volumes, temperatures are measured by students already in elementary school when studying mathematics and natural history. In grades 5-8, these skills are developed and supplemented by more complex ones - the ability to measure the speed, mass and weight of a body, the density of a substance, current strength, voltage in a circuit section, and electrical resistance. Some measurements are direct (measuring the linear dimensions of bodies, volumes using a beaker, mass temperature using a balance scale, weight using a spring dynamometer, current strength using an ammeter, voltage using a voltmeter), others are indirect (for example, the speed of uniform rectilinear motion , defined as the ratio of the distance traveled to the time during which this path was travelled).

You can suggest the following sequence of actions: determine the purpose of the device by appearance; find out the upper and lower limits of measurement; determine the price of division of the scale of the device; perform exercises - measure, for example, the length of a sheet of a notebook, the width of a notebook, the air temperature in the classroom, the volume of liquid poured into a beaker, body weight using a dynamometer (exercises for reading the scale of the device, determining the division value of the scale of the device are best done with several devices at once, so that children learn the generality of the operations performed), for which purpose to determine the value of the measured value on the scale and determine the accuracy of the measurement. All measurements should be accompanied by appropriate notes in notebooks.

The formation of the ability to observe and independently set up experiments. Observation is the deliberate and purposeful perception of objects under study. Based on the results of observations, a comparison is made, a comparison of the objects under study, the identification of the main, essential in them. Representations are formed in the mind, which are subsequently transformed into concepts. L.V. Zankov developed a developing method of observation for students of the 1st grade. We have developed a methodology for developing the ability to observe in students in grades 6–8. Our preliminary research with N.M. Belyakova, Associate Professor of the Department of Psychology of ChSPI, showed that, despite the large number of observations and experiments that students are invited to perform in accordance with the curriculum in the process of studying natural history courses (in elementary school), biology, chemistry and physicists, by the time they graduate from high school, they alone, without instructions in which everything is written in detail, cannot perform either observation or experiment. It turned out that children are accustomed only to reproducing (reproductive) activities. In this regard, a whole series of studies was carried out aimed at developing a methodology that ensures the achievement of a higher level of formation of these skills. The effectiveness of its application was gradually tested by M.N. Belyakova in grades 4–5, then by A.A. Zinoviev in grades 6–7 and A.A. 9th-11th grades). The essence of this technique is as follows.

In the activities of observation and performance of experiments, the main operations and actions that do not depend on the particular characteristics of the material are distinguished, and the logical sequence of their implementation is determined. On this basis, together with the students, an algorithmic prescription is developed (in our terminology, generalized plan of action), the necessity of the ability to perform clearly, consciously each operation is substantiated. At the initial stage, the ability to confidently and competently perform individual operations is developed, and then a rational sequence of all operations is considered.

The structure of activities for the implementation of observation: understanding the purpose of observation; determination of the object of observation; creating the necessary conditions for observation, ensuring good visibility of the observed phenomenon; the choice of the most advantageous method of coding (fixing) the information received in the process of observation; conducting observation with simultaneous fixation (coding) of the information received in the process of observation; analysis of the results of observations, formulation of conclusions.

The structure of activities for the implementation of experiments: the formulation of the purpose of the experiment; building a hypothesis that can be used as a basis; determining the conditions that are necessary in order to test the correctness of the hypothesis; determination of the necessary instruments and materials; modeling the course of a specific experience (determining the sequence of operations); the choice of a rational way of encoding (fixing) the information that is expected to be obtained during the experiment; direct execution of the experiment - observation, measurement and fixation of the information received (sketches, recording of measurement results, etc.); mathematical processing of measurement results; analysis of the received data; formulation of conclusions from experiments.

Of course, the process of developing the ability of students to independently perform experiments begins with the development of the ability to perform the simplest operations: performing measurements, including reading instrument scales, determining the price of the instrument scale, its lower and upper limits, measuring, counting and correctly recording instrument readings, determining the measurement error.

It is also necessary to develop the ability to properly use laboratory equipment (tripods and accessories, energy source, stands, lifting tables, etc.), observe safety rules, record the results of observations and measurements in various ways (drawings, tables, graphs, photographs). , filming, and in the future, video recording).

The above plan of activity is common to all experiments. Initially, it is given in an abbreviated form in the 8th grade. Prior to this, the ability to perform more and more complex operations is worked out, and as this skill is mastered, the plan of activities for performing experiments expands, it includes such items as building a hypothesis, modeling the progress of the experiment, determining the instruments and materials necessary for this, the ability to use a microcalculator for performing calculations, etc.

A.A.Bobrov showed that if by the end of training according to the traditional method in the 8th grade, the coefficient of performance of operations was 0.33, and by the time of graduation from high school it increased only to 0.36, then in the experimental classes it reached 0, 56 (in schools No. 31 and 147 of Chelyabinsk - up to 0.72). The results of this preliminary experiment led to the suggestion of the expediency of extending the approach we developed to the formation of experimental and other educational and cognitive skills in students to teaching all subjects of the natural cycle. Such an experiment is currently being carried out in the implementation of interdisciplinary communications (physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics) in schools No. 80 and 102 in Chelyabinsk.

A large role in the formation of educational and cognitive skills common to the cycle of academic disciplines is given to a variety of forms of organizing training sessions (conferences, intra-subject and complex seminars, integrated lessons, workshops, excursions). The ongoing comprehensive study provides for the identification of new forms of training sessions that activate the educational and cognitive capabilities of students, the development of their creative abilities.

Literature

1. Psychological Dictionary./Ed. Davydova V.V., Zaporozhets A.V., Zinchenko V.P. and others - M .: Education, p. 204–205.

2. The development of students in the learning process./Ed. Zankova L.V. – M.: APN RSFSR, 1963.

3. Usova A.V. Didactic functions of various forms of training sessions in physics. - Physics at school, 1987, No. 4.

4. Usova A.V. The system of forms of training sessions. - Soviet Pedagogy, 1984, No. 1.

Summary: Classifications of skills formed in teaching history

Skill - the ability to perform actions acquired as a result of training or life practice. With further exercise, the skill can turn into a skill.

The section "Classification of skills in the methodology of teaching history" presents a comparison of classifications according to N. Loshkareva (Loshkareva N.A. Formation of a system of general educational skills and abilities of schoolchildren. M., 1982) and Y. Shopov (Shopov Y. Skill and navicite in teaching in history // Methods for teaching history. Theory and educational technologies. - Blagoevgrad, 1996, p. 152), which in itself can be an object of reflection for an inquisitive reader.

A separate section is devoted to the formation of skills for working with a written historical source (very technologically, with a focus on the child, methods and operations are considered when working with a source from marking up a photocopy for work in the classroom and answering simple questions to high-level analysis), teaching chronological and spatial localization, reading and interpreting images, working with diagrams, statistical data, rational methods of learning. When reading this section, the average Russian teacher, I think, on every page would have a reason to ask where to get the time for all this. But all the techniques described are extremely simple, effective and interesting.

The logic of building strategies is as follows. The school should form a mandatory minimum of skills for independent intellectual activity for each student - therefore, the process of developing skills should be carried out in the process of learning in the lessons of various disciplines from grades 1 to 11. It is possible and necessary to optimize the volume and level of these skills in the process of extracurricular activities and other forms of extracurricular activities of students in accordance with their individual needs and interests.

The experience that is born in the gymnasium, in my opinion, is of interest to the leaders and teachers of educational institutions of all types and types. I hope that the teachers of the gymnasium will themselves formulate the ideas of their own experience in their speeches at our NPC and in their articles. I am only trying to reveal the essence and practical significance of strategies.

The strategy of forming the skills of independent intellectual activity in the process of learning in the classroom in the gymnasium begins from the third grade. The most important skill at this age, we consider the ability to read meaningfully. Teacher of the highest category N.S. Kuimova believes that reading for a child at the initial stages remains a very difficult task, which does not bring satisfaction from the work done: he is already overloaded with information, and the emotional impact on him flows from everywhere. Natalia Semyonovna is looking for such methods of teaching reading in the third grade that will allow to form the ability to comprehend the text, to find “one’s own”, personally significant meaning in it, and at the same time the child should receive joy, satisfaction from the reading process precisely from penetrating into the meaning of what has been read. To state the technology of such training is the business of the teacher himself. I see my task in formulating the practical significance of the emerging experience. The technology of meaningful reading is important, first of all, by the transformation of situational cognitive interest caused by a specific interesting text into a steady interest in the very process of reading as a creative activity that realizes the dominant needs of the age for self-expression and self-affirmation of one's personal uniqueness. And there is no need to be afraid that some of the children in the text do not reveal the main meaning that the teacher sees in it. Natalia Semyonovna quite rightly asserts: the process of learning is impossible without mistakes; the best option is when children independently seek and identify meanings in the presence of a teacher. The teacher offers to compare the meanings seen by different children, to compare them. According to her observations, it is their own meanings that connect the child with the text and allow him to evaluate and make his own personal meanings that the teacher will offer. The traditional method orients the teacher to discover, “broadcast” to the children the true meaning of the text. Consequently, the practical significance of the analyzed methodology also lies in the fact that it creates conditions for the transformation of each child into a subject of his own teaching. The child, while reading, thinks, thinks, seeks and formulates the meaning of what he read; learns to compare (compare) their own meaning with the meanings identified by comrades and the teacher. And this is the process of developing analytical skills. At least half of my students, even in the fourth year, do not have analytical skills. After reading the views of two scientists professing different scientific schools, students with delight reproductively retell these views, not being able to compare them, to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each; not being able to make a conscious choice: whose scientific school they will take as the basis of their own research and design.

I really hope that the method of meaningful reading, firstly, will revive the lost interest of young people in independent reading; secondly, it will form ideologically important skills to identify the meanings of the first read texts, then - a variety of life situations. Thirdly, this technique will contribute to the formation of very necessary and very complex analytical skills, without which education cannot be truly fundamental and of high quality; without which a person is simply lost in any extraordinary life situation and does not know how to independently make a decision about his future behavior at the bifurcation point.

So far, elementary school teachers have gained experience in using the method of meaningful reading on texts of popular science content that are fascinating for children in grades 3-4. Now teachers correct the mastered methodology for texts of various content, as well as for testing the methodology in the process of teaching children in the second (possibly first) grade.

In the middle and senior grades, the forms and methods of forming the skills of independent intellectual activity of students are worked out by teachers of all educational areas.

Elena Alekseevna Starkova, starting from the 6th grade, teaches children in history lessons to work with primary sources, independently compare facts, sometimes mutually exclusive, and make meaningful and reasoned conclusions. By the 11th grade, boys and girls already have metasubject skills and abilities to analyze and comprehend the facts and phenomena of a political and worldview nature. I had the opportunity to observe the independent activities of eleventh-graders who compared several official (Soviet and post-Soviet) versions of the political situation in Europe on the eve of the Great Patriotic War and V. Suvorov's version (the book "Icebreaker"). I was pleasantly surprised by the ability of youth to identify mutually exclusive statements, to look for facts missing for judgments, to subject them to a thorough analysis, to identify causal relationships, and then to state them with arguments, objecting to their comrades who spoke earlier. With such an organization of learning, students not only learn and memorize certain knowledge - in their minds there is a process of internalization of knowledge and ways to obtain it independently; there is a mental neoplasm - a fusion of knowledge, methods of obtaining it and personal beliefs. In my opinion, Elena Alekseevna intuitively uses the environmental approach in education, intellectually enriching the life environment of young people in the classroom and turning the educational material into an event that is personally significant and personally experienced by everyone, into an event that becomes co-existence for everyone.

Project technologies seem promising to me. Larisa Arsenovna Zelenskaya and Lyubov Aleksandrovna Kalinina use project technologies to form a sustainable interest in physics and chemistry, respectively; as well as for the formation of skills to independently obtain the necessary and missing knowledge, compare the views of different scientists, collect, select and structure scientific information, comprehend it and present it to classmates or younger ones; discuss the topic. Larisa Arsenovna has gained experience in computer presentations of scientific reports of eighth-graders on the following topics: "History of the creation of steam engines"; "Ball lightning - what is it?"; tenth graders - computer presentations of scientific reports: "What laws does our world obey?"; "What is the nature of things", etc.

Not being able to formulate in one article all the ideas that have arisen in the experience that is born in the gymnasium, I will try to formulate some conclusions.

Over the past year, at least 20 teachers have mastered modern technologies for developing the skills of independent intellectual activity among students of different ages. They have their first own experience, which they share with colleagues (including colleagues from other educational institutions of the district and city). Some teachers will speak at the "round tables" of our NPC.

At the same time, technologies for the formation of skills of independent intellectual activity in the process of lessons, in various forms of extracurricular activities and in the process of special classes for "advanced" children (electives) are being worked out.

We consider the experience of this work with students, starting from the 3rd grade, to be an important result.

In elementary school, the experience of involving parents in joint activities on the formation of these skills in children appeared. Teachers develop written recommendations to parents for their participation in joint work with teachers and children as subjects.

Some teachers have already made serious progress in developing the skills of independent intellectual activity in students.

Is all of the above really important for solving the problems of lifelong education management? 36 years ago, the results of a large-scale All-Union study of the causes of educational failure in schoolchildren were published. A group of scientists headed by Academician Yu.K. Babansky, identified and ranked the most typical reasons that prevented the successful receipt of a quality secondary education by the entire younger generation. One of the main reasons for failures is the lack of formation of general educational skills of independent cognitive activity. I did not see such large-scale studies in subsequent years. But all the authors of similar local studies known to me in the last 10-15 years confirm that the main reason that prevents people of any age and gender from getting a quality education of any level is functional illiteracy, one of the components of which is the lack of formation of skills for independent intellectual activity.

State educational policy today focuses on the independence of the child and the development of his personality. Consequently, the priority areas in the organization of the educational process are the differentiation of learning and independent cognitive activity of students.

To prepare students for life in a dynamic world means to equip them not only with the necessary knowledge, but also with ways to master it. However, the ability to learn does not arise by itself, as a result of additional pedagogical requirements; it should be the result of serious work not only of the teacher, but also of the students themselves. One of the most important tasks of a teacher is the formation of intellectual, informational, research cultures and a culture of self-organization, which will allow the student to learn all his life. To solve this problem, it is necessary to change the learning process in such a way that students are involved in creative, educational and cognitive activities. The need to develop the foundations of logical thinking and creative abilities is due to time. The mere assimilation of a system of knowledge by a student is no longer enough, there is a need to form in the younger generation the need for independent creative activity, in the development of their intellectual abilities.

The purpose of the work on this topic is to form students' competence in the field of cognitive activity, which include general and special skills, and to make children active participants in the educational process.

The organization of developmental education involves the development of a certain system of knowledge, the creation of conditions for mastering the methods of mental activity.

Developing education is the orientation of the educational process to the potential of a person and their implementation. The main general education school does not have an integral system that puts into practice the concept of developmental education, which really allows creating conditions for the development of students' intellectual abilities, the realization of their creative potential, therefore, the author of the experiment systematically works on the formation and development of general educational, research skills of students at each history lesson, applying various tricks and methods.

To form these skills, I use the history of the game in teaching. The game constantly replenishes knowledge, is a means of comprehensive development of the child, his abilities, causes positive emotions, fills the life of the children's team with interesting content. Games help, according to Ushinsky, not only to show abilities and inclinations, but also to improve them. He believed that work and study, combined with play activities, contribute to the formation of character and the development of the will and mind. Games are always conducted according to certain rules; in the game, children must mobilize their knowledge by referring to sources of information, thus developing their skills and abilities.

Games should be based on interest, initiative, free choice of topic. The team of children engaged in such work requires perseverance and hard work, curiosity and inquisitiveness, endurance and ingenuity, as well as a variety of skills and abilities. Joint discussion and evaluation of finished games teaches to listen to critical remarks of comrades, to think about eliminating shortcomings, to master various forms of oral public speaking, rhetoric techniques, culture of speech, and the ability to accept different points of view.

During educational games, the educational material is repeated many times in its various combinations and forms, which improves the quality of knowledge.

In the didactic and methodological literature on the use of games in the educational process, two groups are distinguished:

- small didactic games;

Role-playing games.

Small didactic games help students learn a lot of chronological, cartographic, historical and cultural material. They are aimed at mastering the characteristics of historical figures (the formation of students' logical thinking), historical events, monuments of art, and the way of life of people. For example, quizzes:

– “Do you know this historical figure?”,

- "Where does this passage come from?" (for knowledge of historical literature),

- "What event are you talking about?"

- "Do you know these myths?" etc.

Students successfully distinguish truth from fiction (tasks are offered to find and correct errors in the text, in pictures and sketches.)

"Quartet", "Scattered Proposal". At the middle level, the guys are captivated by intellectual games like: “Lucky chance”, “What? Where? When?”, “Wheel of history”, “Own game”. By organizing games in the classroom, one can come to the conclusion that without a teacher, without his support, many interesting undertakings may turn out to be difficult and impracticable for students.

A role-playing game, which is prepared within 2-3 weeks, as a rule, with high school students, forms the ability to analyze historical events, facts, causes, results and meanings of the events in question, build a story based on several sources of knowledge, and evaluate historical events , figures, position of classes. ("Tournament of Speakers", "Munchausen Competition", "Club of Travelers", "Journey to Art Galleries".)

An analysis of educational work, methodological literature, school practice allows us to conclude that the effectiveness of a role-playing game depends on factors:

- the level of formation of historical knowledge;

The level of formation of skills and abilities of students;

Preparation of students, including the experience of performing historical roles, creating an installation for the game.

For the success of role-playing games, the teacher first relies on a group of well-performing children who show an increased interest in history, in reading fiction and historical literature, members of historical circles, gradually expanding the circle of participants.

Educational games in a reasonable combination with other teaching methods and means help intensify the process of teaching history, more successfully solve problems in the formation of general educational and research skills, in the formation of students' creative thinking, their independence.

The formation of research skills of students is carried out by writing an essay.

An abstract is an independent research work of a student, where the author reveals the essence of the researched work; gives different points of view, as well as his own views on it. The content of the material should be logical, the presentation of the material is of a problem-search nature.

The topics on which we most often work with the children are based on local history material, because it is necessary to instill in students a love for their small Motherland, a sense of national identity, and feel pride in their fellow countrymen.

The interactive method is used by the author in teaching history while learning new material. This technique involves the work of children in groups. All students in the class are divided into groups of 4 people. Each student receives his own block of material according to the content of the paragraph, then they gather by numbers in a different group, study the material together and present it in a visual form, writing it down in a notebook. Then they return to the original groups, where each student fixes new material in his workbook after explaining his comrades in turn. In this situation, the children form the following educational and communicative general educational skills and abilities:

- possession of various forms of oral public speaking;

Possession of rhetoric techniques;

Organization of joint activities;

Possession of the culture of speech;

Listening to the opinions of others.

Possible options for tasks for students when working in groups:

make a summary on a specific item, here the ability to work with a textbook is formed, the ability to find and highlight the main thoughts, a logical presentation of the material;

draw up a plan (simple or complex), here the ability to draw up plans of various types is formed, to find differences;

fill in the chronological table;

work with the map: find on the map and answer the question;

find new concepts in the proposed paragraph, write them out in a notebook and learn (memory develops);

analyze the textbook document and determine in whose interests it is written;

using additional sources - fiction and documentary, to solve a problem task, here the ability of students to work with additional literature, listen to the opinions of other students in the group, and develop creative thinking is formed.

Students should be motivated to write a written work in the form of a test of 5 or 6 tasks after the exchange of material. After writing the test, the guys are given a key, and they perform mutual control, working in pairs, which is a very useful moment.

Homework is given to students dosed, multi-level, which allows you to take into account individual characteristics.

The study of new material using an interactive method (zigzag) is effective because, in practice, work in groups excludes unsatisfactory grades, as work experience shows and forms a wide range of general educational and research skills of students.

The main indicator of the mental development of students is not only the amount of knowledge acquired by the student, but the level of intellectual skills, mental techniques and logical operations that the student owns.

In the classical education system, programs are not built on creative forms of activity, but are focused on memorizing facts and getting unambiguous questions. In most cases, the teacher gives priority to educational goals, but it is also necessary to plan the development of thinking, since Olympiad tasks, intellectual competitions and quizzes involve the development of general educational, research and intellectual skills of students.

Therefore, it is necessary to teach schoolchildren special methods and techniques of developmental education, which is what the author of the experiment does with students on the elective program “Learning to learn”.

The process of student development should be a holistic, unified process, implemented both through a system of special classes and through basic training sessions.

To ensure the integrity and continuity of the formation of methods of mental activity, the lesson should include the following steps:

Motivation

goal setting

Planning

Action to implement the plan

Self-control, self-analysis, self-assessment

Expert assessment (diagnosis)

Correction

The course of developing classes creates conditions for the development of cognitive interests in schoolchildren, forms the child's desire for reflection and search, makes him feel confident in his abilities, in the capabilities of his intellect. Schoolchildren's fear of making wrong steps disappears, anxiety and unreasonable anxiety decrease.

The problem of developing a complex of personality traits included in the concept of "cognitive abilities" requires a long, purposeful work.

Classification of cognitive skills of schoolchildren. Formation of educational and cognitive skills in the process of studying subjects of the natural cycle. Junior school age

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Academician of the Russian Academy of Education A.V. USOVA,
State Pedagogical University,
Chelyabinsk

Formation of educational and cognitive skills
in the process of studying subjects of the natural cycle

Literature

Summary: Classifications of skills formed in teaching history

Regular and irregular English verbs

Where did the Romanov dynasty come from?

Classification of cognitive skills of schoolchildren. Formation of educational and cognitive skills in the process of studying subjects of the natural cycle. Junior school age

Download:

Preview:

Academician of the Russian Academy of Education A.V. USOVA,State Pedagogical University, Chelyabinsk

Formation of educational and cognitive skills in the process of studying subjects of the natural cycle

Literature

Summary: Classifications of skills formed in teaching history

Regular and irregular English verbs

Where did the Romanov dynasty come from?

Academician of the Russian Academy of Education A.V. USOVA,
State Pedagogical University,
Chelyabinsk

Formation of educational and cognitive skills
in the process of studying subjects of the natural cycle