China and the Mongols - the history of relations. Lesson on world history on the topic: "China. Mongolia XX century" Mongolia after the Second World War

With the attack of Nazi Germany on the USSR on June 22, 1941, the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people began, which lasted about four years. In December 1941, the war in the Pacific began between Japan and the United States. The interests of the anti-fascist struggle demanded the urgent creation of an anti-Hitler coalition.

The ruling circles of the United States and Britain officially notified the Soviet government of their readiness to help it. Thus, the anti-Hitler coalition was created. The MPR resolutely took the side of this coalition. On June 22, 1941, a joint meeting of the Presidium of the Mongolian Parliament and the Government of the country was held, at which the attitude of the Mongolian people to the Great Patriotic War/WWII/ Soviet Union. It declared its fidelity to the obligations assumed under the Protocol on Mutual Assistance concluded between the MPR and the USSR on March 12, 1936.

In the decisions of the highest state authorities, it was noted that the most important and main task of the MPR is the task of all-round assistance to the peoples of the Soviet Union in their struggle against fascist Germany, because without the Victory over fascism, which threatened to enslave all the peoples of the world, the further free and successful development of the MPR is impossible. The Mongolian people enthusiastically accepted this call. A wave of rallies and meetings swept across the country, at which a sincere desire was expressed to help the Soviet people. To organize work on the creation of a special fund and send gifts to Soviet soldiers at the front in September 1941, the Central Commission was formed under the Government of the country. Local commissions were also created in each aimag.

Money, gold and silver items and other valuables, warm clothes (short coats, felt boots, fur vests, quilted jackets, overcoats, scarves, mittens, etc.), food (meat, sausages and confectionery, oil , canned food, jam, berries, mushrooms, vodka, etc.).

The movement to help the Soviet people embraced all sections of the population and became truly massive.

Brigades were organized locally to harvest furs and meat. On the initiative of Mongolian women, hundreds of circles for knitting and making warm clothes for Soviet soldiers worked. Many medical workers and ordinary people voluntarily became donors. Youth and trade union organizations organized subbotniks, the proceeds of which were contributed to the fund to help the Soviet people. The workers of many enterprises, refusing to take days off and the next vacation, worked overtime, overfulfilled monthly and quarterly plans, and transferred the products produced and the money earned during this time to the relief fund. They spared nothing for the sake of achieving the Victory of the Soviet people over Nazi Germany and ensuring peace. In all camps, in all houses and yurts, gifts were prepared for the front-line soldiers. Every worker considered it his duty to send to the front what he could and had. The Mongolian people gave the Soviet soldiers not only material, but also moral help and support.

Letter from the front in Mongolian script

From all over the country, workers, cattle breeders, intellectuals, students of secondary schools and technical schools, soldiers of the people's army sent thousands of collective and individual letters to the Soviet government, soldiers, commanders of units, units of the Red Army, and in response received many letters from the Soviet people. The prepared gifts were delivered to the front by representatives of the Mongolian people in eight echelons.

In total, during the war years, the working people of the MPR sent gifts totaling 65 million tugriks to the Volkhov, Kalinin, North-Western and Western fronts.

One of the most effective forms of assistance was the acquisition of military weapons at the expense of the Mongolian people and their transfer to the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union.

Solemn transfer of the tank column "Revolutionary Mongolia" (32 T-34 tanks and 21 T-70 tanks) to the wars of the 112th Red Banner Tank Brigade

A tank column was created, which was built with funds raised by the population of Mongolia. January 12, 1943 a tank column called "Revolutionary Mongolia", which included 53 tanks, was solemnly handed over by the delegation of the MPR to the 112th Order of the Red Banner tank brigade. The column passed a glorious military path from the Moscow region to Berlin. In 1943, the Mongolian Arat air squadron was also built with funds raised by the population of Mongolia.

The solemn transfer of the squadron, consisting of 12 La-5 combat aircraft, took place on September 25, 1943 at a field airfield near Vyazovaya station, Smolensk region. The pilots of the "Mongolian Arat" squadron participated in many offensive operations of the troops of the Kalinin, Western and 1st Baltic fronts, showing courage and heroism in the battles for the liberation of the territory of Belarus, Lithuania, East Prussia and Poland from the German fascists.

Along with this, the Mongolian population sold a significant number of horses for the needs of the Red Army. This work was carried out throughout the country as a major campaign of political importance, due to which the annual plans for the purchase of horses were always exceeded. Mongolian cattle breeders not only sold, but also began a movement to transfer the best horses as a gift to Soviet soldiers.

During the war years, arat-cattle breeders sold 485 thousand and donated over 32.5 thousand horses. At the end of the war, work was organized to purchase horses and breeding stock for donation to the collective farms of the liberated regions. Thus, Mongolia made its concrete contribution to the defeat of fascist Germany. As is known, the Crimean Conference developed a program for the democratic organization of the post-war world. It adopted the final decisions on the Far Eastern issues. The heads of the three allied powers signed the Agreement on the Far East, which provided for the obligation of the USSR to enter the war against Japan.

As one of the most important conditions in the Agreement on the Far East, the item "Preservation of the status quo of Outer Mongolia" (MPR) was included.

As you know, the status quo is a term of international law used to refer to any factual or legal situation that existed or exists at a certain moment, the preservation of which is in question. Thus, this meant that the USA, England and the USSR actually recognized the independence and sovereignty of the Mongolian People's Republic.

As you know, after the victory of the Mongolian revolution in 1921. The country's government addressed all countries with a declaration in which it declared its desire to establish friendly relations with all countries. The governments of the United States and European countries have not responded to the repeated peace-loving proposals of the government of Mongolia. The Beijing government not only did not want to do anything in this direction, but also tried in every possible way to complicate relations between the two countries. Under these conditions, the strengthening of relations with Soviet Russia, which had developed in the joint struggle against the White Guards, was decisive in the foreign policy of Mongolia.

On November 5, 1921, an Agreement on the establishment of friendly relations was signed between the Government of Mongolia and the Government of the RSFSR. By agreement, both states mutually recognized their governments as the only legitimate ones, which was an example of the recognition of governments according to the traditional de jure form. Thus, Soviet Russia recognized Mongolia as an independent state and established diplomatic relations with it at the level of plenipotentiaries.

However, the position of Soviet Russia in relation to Mongolia was closely connected with the "Chinese factor". On May 31, 1924, an agreement was signed in Beijing on general principles to resolve issues between the USSR and China, the 5th article of which read: "The Government of the USSR recognizes that Outer Mongolia is an integral part of the Republic of China and respects the sovereignty of China." Under these conditions, the Mongolian leadership took urgent measures aimed at strengthening the state independence of the country. On June 15, 1924, the establishment of a republican system in the country was announced. The first Great People's Khural, held in November 1924, adopted the Constitution of the country and legally approved the republican system, independence and sovereignty of the MPR. Therefore, the decision of the Crimean Conference to maintain the status quo of the Mongolian People's Republic was of great international importance.

The recognition of the state independence of the MPR by the states of the Allied Powers was the result of the fact that Mongolia, from the first days of the World War, resolutely stood on the side of the Allied Powers.

The defeat and surrender of Nazi Germany had not yet ended the Second World War. In the Far East, in the Pacific Ocean, Germany's ally, militarist Japan, continued to conduct military operations. The Second World War could not end without the defeat of the militaristic forces of Japan.

By decision of the Crimean Conference, the Allied Powers began preparations for a war against Japan. On June 26, 1945, the governments of the United States, Britain and China sent an ultimatum to Japan, which went down in history as the Potsdam Declaration. However, the Japanese government not only rejected the Potsdam Declaration, but also continued its policy of prolonging the war. In the spring and summer of 1945, a general mobilization into the armed forces was carried out on the territory of Japan, Korea and Manchukuo.

By the beginning of August 1945, near the border of the Soviet Union and the MPR, the Japanese command concentrated a large strategic grouping of Japanese troops. The Soviet Union, proceeding from its commitments made at the Crimean Conference, on August 8, 1945, declared war on Japan. On August 10, 1945, the Presidium of the Small Khural and the Government of the MPR announced that the MPR was declaring war on Japan.

The combat operations of the Soviet Army against the Japanese troops unfolded simultaneously along a front about 5,000 km long. The troops of the Trans-Baikal, 1st and 2nd Far Eastern fronts, as well as the river, sea and air military forces of the USSR in the Far East took part in the battles. The Soviet army from August 9 to 23, having utterly defeated the Japanese troops, liberated Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, South Sakhalin and the islands of Syumusyu and Paramushir from the Kuril Islands.

Meeting of Russian and Mongolian veterans of Khalkhin Gol, Ulaanbaatar

The Soviet Union played the main role in the defeat of Japanese militarism and won a decisive victory in the defeat of the Kwantung Army. It must be emphasized that the naval blockade and massive air bombardment by the United States played an important role in the defeat of Japan. The troops of the Mongolian army carried out operations in close cooperation with the troops of the Trans-Baikal Front.

Japan was opposed by 4 cavalry divisions, an armored brigade, an air division and a signal regiment of the Mongolian army in two main directions: Dolonnor-Jehe and Kalgan. In the first week of the war, the troops of the Mongolian army traveled 450 km, liberating the city of Dolonnor and other cities and villages. The units that liberated the city of Zhanbei, in fierce battles on August 19-21, took the fortification at the Kalgan pass. Having overcome enormous difficulties, the army approached the sea with battles. For the first time in the 20th century, the armed forces of Mongolia, together with the Soviet troops, conducted military operations on the territory of another state, freeing the peoples of China from the enslavement of the Japanese invaders.

On September 2, 1945, in Tokyo Bay, aboard the American battleship Missouri, the Japanese side signed an act of unconditional surrender, which meant the end of World War II. Thus, during the Second World War, the MPR took a firm and principled position on the side of the United Nations.

The fact that during the Second World War the Mongolian people consistently and unswervingly fought against fascism and militarism, for peace and freedom of peoples, favored the further strengthening of the sovereignty of the MPR.

As a result of the exchange of special notes between the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of China and the USSR and the negotiations that took place in August 1945 in Moscow between the delegations of the Soviet Union and China, the government of the latter agreed to recognize the Mongolian People's Republic as a sovereign and independent state within the then existing borders after a plebiscite was held in the MPR .

Due to the fact that 100 percent of the votes of the citizens who took part in the popular plebiscite were for the state independence of the MPR, on January 5, 1946, the Chinese government was forced to recognize the independence of the Mongolian People's Republic. On February 13, 1946, diplomatic relations were established between both states.

In February 1946, a Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance was concluded between the MPR and the USSR. At the same time, an Agreement on economic and cultural cooperation between the MPR and the USSR was signed. The Treaty and the Agreement served as the basis for all subsequent agreements between the MPR and the USSR and determined the development of Mongolian-Soviet cooperation for a whole historical period until the conclusion of a new treaty in 1966.

In order to be able within the framework of the UN to fight together with all peace-loving states for a constructive solution of pressing international problems in the interests of world peace, the Government of the MPR, beginning in June 1946, repeatedly applied for admission to the United Nations. Emphasizing the active participation of Mongolia in the Second World War, the Government of the MPR, in its address to the UN Secretary General, stated its confidence that "neither the Security Council nor the General Assembly will forget about this participation of the Mongolian people in the common cause of the United Nations and will react favorably to application of the MPR for its admission to the UN.

It must be emphasized that the legitimate request of the MPR met with sympathy and approval from the majority of UN members. All this was a major victory for the consistent foreign policy of the MPR, the result of the inflexible will of the Mongolian people for an independent state existence. The Mongolian People's Republic emerged from the Second World War politically stronger, the prestige and authority of the Mongolian state increased, and its international position strengthened.

Lesson topic : CHINA. MONGOLIA

Goals :

educational : to show the features of the political and socio-economic development of China and Mongolia after the Second World War; identify the causes of political confrontation in Chinese society and the victory of the communists; characterize the domestic and foreign policy of Mao Zedong; show the success of the economic development of modern China and its role in the modern world.

Educational : development of an analytical approach to assessing the historical development of these states.

Educational : education of respect for national traditions and customs of all peoples.

Lesson type : combined

m/equipment : table, scheme, political map of the world.

DURING THE CLASSES

I.org/moment

II. Knowledge update/

How did Iran develop after World War II?

What is a "white revolution"? Describe her.

Tell us about the establishment of the Islamic Republic and the development of Iran at the end of the 20th century.

Describe the political and economic situation in Afghanistan after World War II.

What has changed in the social development of the country after the proclamation of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan? Why did the USSR send troops to Afghanistan?

What is the state of Afghanistan at the present stage?

III. Formation of new ZUN

The first question begins with a characterization of China, at the end of World War II, under the control of two major political groups (use map).

The second question reveals the essence of the Great Leap Forward policy adopted in 1938.

Filling in the table

years

Tasks

“big

jump”

Policy

“cultural

revolution”

contradictions

Events

“cultural

revolution”

An overview of China's domestic and foreign policy in the 80s and the modern period is made. The essence of popular movements and student performances in Beijing and other cities in 1989-1990 is revealed. The student movements were suppressed by the forces of the army, the reforms continued, and the internal situation stabilized. In foreign policy, the leadership of the PRC in 1979 complicated relations with Vietnam. Pay attention to relations with the USSR and Kazakhstan.

IV. Reflection/ Place the following events on the “timeline”:

a) announcement of the formation of the People's Republic of China;

b) the Constitution of the People's Republic of China was adopted;

c) the beginning of the “cultural revolution” in China;

d) conflict between China and Vietnam;

e) friendly relations were established between the USSR and the PRC;

f) additional border agreements between Kazakhstan and China.

V . Lesson summary IN

VI. D/Z § 27, d/m biography of J. Nehru.______________________________________________

The content of the article

MONGOLIA(from 1924 to 1992 - the Mongolian People's Republic), a state in East Asia. In the east, south and west it borders with China, in the north with Russia. Once known as Outer Mongolia, the country occupies about half of the vast historical region that once bore the name of Mongolia. This area is the birthplace of the Mongolian peoples, who created here in the 13th century. powerful empire. From the end of the 17th century at the beginning of the 20th century Mongolia was in vassal dependence on Qing China. In the 20th century Mongolia became the target of rivalry between China and the Soviet Union. In July 1921, a popular revolution took place in Mongolia and the country was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Part of historical Mongolia called Inner Mongolia, currently an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China.

see also below is the HISTORY OF MONGOLIA section.

Geographic feature.

Terrain relief.

Mongolia has an area of ​​1566.5 thousand square meters. km and is mainly a plateau, elevated to a height of 900–1500 m above sea level. Above this plateau rises a series of mountain ranges and ranges. The highest of them is the Mongolian Altai, which stretches in the west and south-west of the country for a distance of 900 km. Its continuation is the lower ranges that do not form a single massif, which received the common name Gobi Altai.

Along the border with Siberia in the north-west of Mongolia there are several ranges that do not form a single massif: Khan Khukhei, Ulan Taiga, Eastern Sayan, in the north-east - the Khentei mountain range, in the central part of Mongolia - the Khangai massif, which is divided into several independent ranges.

To the east and south of Ulaanbaatar towards the border with China, the height of the Mongolian plateau gradually decreases, and it turns into plains - flat and even in the east, hilly in the south. The south, southwest, and southeast of Mongolia is occupied by the Gobi Desert, which continues into north-central China. According to the landscape features of the Gobi - the desert is by no means homogeneous, it consists of sections of sandy, rocky, covered with small fragments of stones, even for many kilometers and hilly, different in color - the Mongols highlight the Yellow, Red and Black Gobi. Surface water sources are very rare here, but groundwater levels are high.

The rivers of Mongolia are born in the mountains. Most of them are the upper reaches of the great rivers of Siberia and the Far East, carrying their waters towards the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. The largest rivers of the country are the Selenga (within the borders of Mongolia - 600 km), Kerulen (1100 km), Onon (300 km), Khalkhin-gol, Kobdo, etc. The most full-flowing is the Selenga. It originates from one of the Khangai ranges, receives several large tributaries - Orkhon, Khanuy-gol, Chulutyn-gol, Delger-muren, etc. Its flow rate is from 1.5 to 3 m per second. In any weather, its fast cold waters, flowing in clay-sandy shores, and therefore always muddy, have a dark gray color. Selenga freezes for half a year, the average ice thickness is from 1 to 1.5 m. It has two floods a year: spring (snow) and summer (rain). The average depth at the lowest water level is not less than 2 m. Having left the borders of Mongolia, the Selenga flows through the territory of Buryatia and flows into Baikal.

Rivers in the western and southwestern parts of the country, flowing down from the mountains, fall into intermountain basins, have no outlet to the ocean and, as a rule, end their journey in one of the lakes.

There are over a thousand permanent lakes in Mongolia and a much larger number of temporary lakes that form during the rainy season and disappear during the drought. In the early Quaternary period, a significant part of the territory of Mongolia was an inland sea, which later divided into several large water bodies. The current lakes are what is left of them. The largest of them are located in the basin of the Great Lakes in the north-west of the country - Ubsu-nur, Khara-Us-nur, Khirgis-nur, their depth does not exceed several meters. In the east of the country there are lakes Buyr-nur and Khukh-nur. In a giant tectonic basin in the north of Khangai, there is Lake Khubsugul (depth up to 238 m), similar to Baikal in terms of water composition, relict flora and fauna.

Climate.

Mongolia has a sharply continental climate with harsh winters and dry, hot summers. In the capital, the city of Ulaanbaatar, located approximately in the middle between the mountain ranges of the northwest and the desert arid zone of the southeast of the country, the temperature in January averages -23 ° C, and in July + 17 ° C. If in the northwest 250–510 mm of precipitation falls annually, while in Ulaanbaatar - only 230–250 mm, even less precipitation falls in the Gobi desert region.

Vegetable world.

The natural vegetation of Mongolia corresponds to local climatic conditions. The mountains in the northwestern part of the country are covered with forests of larch, pine, cedar, and various deciduous tree species. There are magnificent pastures in wide intermountain basins. The river valleys have fertile soil, and the rivers themselves abound in fish. As you move to the southeast, with a decrease in altitude, the density of the vegetation cover gradually decreases and reaches the level of the Gobi desert region, where only in spring and early summer do some types of grasses and shrubs appear. The vegetation of the north and northeast of Mongolia is incomparably richer, since these areas with higher mountains account for more precipitation. In general, the composition of the flora and fauna of Mongolia is very diverse. The nature of Mongolia is beautiful and diverse. In the direction from north to south, six natural belts and zones are successively replaced here. The high-altitude belt is located to the north and west of Lake Khubsugul, on the Khentei and Khangai ridges, in the mountains of the Mongolian Altai. The mountain-taiga belt passes in the same place, below the alpine meadows. The zone of mountain steppes and forests in the Khangai-Khentei mountainous region is the most favorable for human life and is the most developed in terms of the development of agriculture. The largest in size is the steppe zone with its variety of grasses and wild cereals, most suitable for cattle breeding. In the floodplains of the rivers, water meadows are not uncommon.

The fauna of each zone is specific: in the Alpine zone - mountain sheep, mountain goat, predator leopard; in the forest - elk, deer, wild deer, musk deer, lynx, wolverine, wild cat manul, brown bear; in the mountain-steppe - a wolf, a fox, a hare, a wild boar; in the steppe - gazelle antelope, tarbagan marmot and other smaller rodents, partridges and other game birds, birds of prey. Semi-deserts and deserts are much poorer in flora and fauna, however, large representatives of the animal world also live here: wild ass kulan, less whimsical than gazelle gazelle gazelle, gobi bear, Przewalski's horse, wild camel.

Population.

More than 90% of the population of the country are Mongols (northern and western) and non-Mongolian ethnic groups that have merged with them, speaking the Mongolian language. Northern Mongols are Khalkhas (Khalkhas, Khalkha Mongols), Western Mongols are Oirats (Derbets, Zakhchins, Olets, Tumets, Myangats, Torguts, Khoshuts). This also includes the Buryats, Barguts (Shine-Barga) and Dariganga, who speak the languages ​​of the Mongolian group. Non-Mongols by origin - formerly Turkic-speaking Khotons, Darkhats, Uriankhians and Tsaatans, as well as Tungus - Hamnigans. All of them today form ethnographic groups within the Mongols and have practically lost their language and national identity. Less than 10% of the population are Russians, Chinese and Kazakhs, who retain their language, national culture and way of life.

According to the last census of 1989, 2,434 thousand people lived in Mongolia. As of July 2004 (according to data published on the Internet), the population of Mongolia was 2,751 thousand. The reason for the decline in numbers can be seen in several factors: the resettlement of a large number of Kazakhs from Mongolia to the Republic of Kazakhstan, the decline in the birth rate (21.44 per 1,000 inhabitants) at present , high mortality (7.1 per 1000 inhabitants), especially among newborns (55.45 per 1000 newborns).

Mongolia is a sparsely populated country with a centuries-old tradition of nomadism. Accelerated urbanization in the post-war period was facilitated by a general increase in population and the development of industry. By the beginning of the 1990s, 3/5 of the country's population had become city dwellers. The population of Ulaanbaatar (formerly Urga), the capital and the only major city in Mongolia, increased from 70,000 in 1950 to 550,000 in 1990. In Darkhan, a large industrial center built in the 1960s north of Ulan -Bator, in 1990 80 thousand people lived. Other important cities in the country include the trade and transport center Sukhe Bator located north of Ulaanbaatar, near the border with Russia, the new city of Erdenet, which has grown around the mining and processing copper and molybdenum plant, Choibalsan in the east, Ulyasutai and Kobdo in the west of Mongolia .

Language.

The Mongolian language belongs to the Mongolian group of the Altaic macrofamily of languages. The latter also includes the Turkic and Tungus-Manchu language groups. Perhaps the Korean language also belongs to the same macrofamily. The basis of the state language of Mongolia is the Khalkha dialect, which is spoken by the majority of the population of the country. Several types of Mongolian writing are known. The oldest of them - the old Mongolian, or classical script - was created in the 13th century. based on the Uighur alphabet. With some changes made in the 17th century, it existed until the middle of the 20th century. During the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), the so-called "square writing", based on the signs-syllables of the Tibetan alphabet. In the 17th century The Oirat educator Zaya Pandita created a “clear writing” (tod bichg), known in science as the Oirat script. It has not been widely adopted either. Another type of writing called soyombo, was invented at the end of the 17th century. head of the Buddhist community of Mongolia Undur-gegen, but he also did not receive recognition and quickly fell out of circulation. From 1942 to 1945, an alphabet based on the Cyrillic alphabet was introduced in Mongolia. Two more letters were added to the letters of the Russian alphabet - fita and zhitsa - to convey the sounds of the front row specific to the Mongolian language. The Mongols use this script to this day. In 1990, a decree was adopted to return to the old Mongolian script, the implementation of which was supposed to take 10 years.

Religion.

The official religion of Mongolia is Buddhism. As in every country, it has national specifics here. Tibetan missionaries spread Buddhism in Mongolia. The first attempt to introduce Buddhism was made by them in the second half of the 13th century. under the grandson of Genghis Khan Kublai, however, at that time Buddhism was accepted only by the imperial court and a few other representatives of the Mongolian aristocracy. The second attempt turned out to be more successful - at the end of the 16th century. In 1578, a congress of all the princes of Mongolia, with the participation of the head of the Gelug Buddhist school, the most significant at that time in Tibet, decided to adopt Buddhism as the state religion. In 1588 the first Buddhist monastery was built, by the beginning of the 20th century. they numbered approx. 750. Mongolian, like Tibetan, Buddhism is characterized by an extremely high saturation of its practice with pre-Buddhist beliefs, rituals and ideas, the institution of "living gods" (the incarnation of the gods of the pantheon in the bodies of living people) and the recognition of the important role of monasticism in achieving "salvation". The latter concept resulted in a high percentage of monks in the country (40% of the male population, about 100 thousand people), in each family one of the sons would certainly become Buddhist monk. Buddhist monasteries acted as the main centers of the settled way of life. They owned huge herds, received considerable funds in the form of feudal rent and voluntary donations from believers, and were also engaged in trade and usury. In 1921, the People's Revolution won in Mongolia. After the death in 1924 of Bogd Gegen, the "living god" and theocratic head of state, the local monks, and religion in general, began to gradually lose their former influence and authority. The anti-clerical and anti-religious attitude of the communist leadership of the country accelerated this process. By the end of the 1930s, all the monasteries were closed and destroyed, most of the monks were repressed. As a result of political and social reforms initiated in Mongolia in 1986, most of the official restrictions on the practice of religion were removed. A revival of Buddhism has been taking place in the country since the late 1980s. During this time, a number of Buddhist monasteries, previously used as museums, reopened, and restoration of other old monastic complexes began. At the moment there are more than 200 of them.

Along with Buddhism, shamanism continued to be preserved in remote areas of Mongolia.

In the early 1990s, several Christian denominations from Great Britain and the United States created their own small communities in Mongolia.

State device.

The current constitution of Mongolia came into effect in February 1992. It guarantees the fundamental rights of the citizens of the Mongolian People's Republic, including freedom of conscience and political opinion. According to the constitution, the head of state is the president, and the supreme legislative body is the unicameral State Great Khural. The President is elected for a 5-year term by popular vote, from among the candidates who are nominated by members of the State Great Khural. The highest legislative body of the country consists of 75 members elected by popular vote for 5 years. The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court; judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the State Great Khural.

Until 1990, all issues of the country's political, economic and social life were resolved under the direct leadership of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), the local counterpart of the CPSU. In 1990, in the face of massive popular demonstrations and calls for democracy, the MPRP abandoned its monopoly of power and agreed to the formation of opposition political parties, as well as the holding of the country's first multi-party elections. At present, all significant parties and movements are represented in the Mongolian parliament. The country is ruled by the second in a row, since the beginning of democratic reforms, the president.

Before World War II, except for relations with the former Soviet Union, Mongolia was almost completely isolated from the rest of the world. The country joined the United Nations in 1961. In the 1960s, the process of establishing diplomatic relations with developed capitalist countries - Great Britain (1963), France (1965), Japan (1972), etc. began. Diplomatic relations with the United States were established in 1987.

Political parties.

From July 1996 to July 2000, the country was ruled by a coalition of new parties that won the parliamentary elections in June 1996. The largest in the coalition was the National Democratic Party (NDP), formed in 1992 on the basis of the merger of a number of liberal and conservative parties and groups. In 2001, the NDP was renamed the Democratic Party. The coalition also included the Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP, founded in 1990), the Green Party (environmental) and the Religious Democratic Party (clerical-liberal, established in 1990).

In the 2000 elections, the former ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) returned to power. The MPRP was created as the Mongolian People's Party on the basis of a merger in July 1920 of two underground revolutionary circles. The program of the party, adopted at its First Congress in March 1921, was oriented toward an "anti-imperialist, anti-feudal people's revolution." From July 1921 the MNP became the ruling party and established close ties with the Russian communists and the Comintern. The III Congress of the MNP in August 1924 officially proclaimed a course towards the transition from feudalism to socialism, "bypassing capitalism", which was enshrined in the party program adopted at the Fourth Congress in 1925. In March 1925, the MNP was renamed the MPRP, which turned into a Marxist-Leninist party . The program approved by the Tenth Congress (1940) provided for the transition from the "revolutionary-democratic stage" of development to the socialist one, and the 1966 program provided for the completion of the "construction of socialism." However, in the early 1990s, the MPRP officially abandoned Marxism-Leninism and began to advocate a transition to a market economy while maintaining the stability of society and improving the well-being of the population. New program, adopted in February 1997, defines it as a democratic and socialist party.

In addition to the two main political forces, other parties and organizations operate in Mongolia: the United Party of National Traditions, which united several right-wing groups in 1993, the Homeland Alliance (which included the Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party and the Mongolian Labor Party), etc.

Economy.

Mongolia's GDP in 2003 amounted to 4.88 billion. USD. By sectors, Mongolia's GDP is divided as follows: the agricultural share was 20.6%, industry - 21.4%, other services - 58%.

Pasture animal husbandry.

Pasture animal husbandry still remains the main type of economic activity. The destruction of the nomadic way of life began with the Manchus carrying out a policy of attaching ethnic groups as part of the Mongols to certain territories. The catastrophic reduction in the number of livestock in the period after 1924, when the influence of the Soviet Union increased in Mongolia, was the result of blind copying of the policy of collectivization. Later, a special Mongolian form of collective farms was developed. The lands of each such collective farm were also considered an administrative unit - a district (Mong. somon). In 1997, the total number of livestock - sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels - was approx. 29.3 million heads, of which 80% are sheep and goats, 11% are cattle. Today, Mongolia is among the leading countries in the world in terms of livestock per capita (approximately 12 heads per person). Significant progress has also been made in livestock breeding and veterinary medicine.

In line with the political and economic changes that began in the countries of the former socialist camp after 1989, Mongolia decided to move to a market economy. On the basis of the law on foreign investment adopted in 1990, citizens of other states were given the opportunity to own shares of various types of enterprises, from firms with 100 percent foreign capital to joint companies. New laws were passed regarding taxation and banking, credit and debt. In May 1991, a law on privatization came into force, according to which state property could pass into the hands of “law-abiding” citizens (i.e. those who have not previously committed serious crimes) permanently residing in the country. Each citizen was given a special investment coupon that could be bought, sold or given to any other person. Holders of such coupons became active participants in special auctions, with the help of which state property was privatized. Later, in 1991, "state farms" and cooperative livestock associations were liquidated, and the transfer of land and livestock to private ownership began.

Agriculture.

Agriculture plays a secondary role in the economic life of Mongolia. Various crops are grown in the northern and western parts of the country, some with land irrigation. Irrigation systems have been created today in the Gobi. In 1990, the total area of ​​cultivated land was about 827 thousand hectares. Until 1991, the predominant part of these lands was cultivated by large state farms, the rest by cooperative livestock farming associations. The main crop is wheat, although barley, potatoes and oats are also grown. Experimental horticulture has existed since the 1950s, and even melon growing in the Trans-Altai Gobi. The harvesting of hay and fodder for livestock plays a significant role.

Natural resources.

Mongolia is rich in fur-bearing animals (especially marmots, squirrels, foxes), in some parts of the country the fur trade is an important source of income for the population. Fishing is carried out in the lakes and rivers of the northern regions.

Despite the abundance of mineral deposits, their development is still limited. There are 4 brown coal deposits in Mongolia (Nalaikha, Sharyngol, Darkhan, Baganur). In the south of the country, in the region of the Taban-Tolgoi mountain range, hard coal was discovered, the geological reserves of which amount to billions of tons. Medium deposits of tungsten and fluorspar have long been known and are being developed. Copper-molybdenum ore found in Treasure Mountain (Erdenetiin ovoo) led to the creation of a mining and processing plant, around which the city of Erdenet was built. Oil was discovered in Mongolia in 1951, after which an oil refinery was built in Sain-Shanda, a city southeast of Ulaanbaatar, near the border with China (oil production ceased in the 1970s). Near Lake Khuvsgul, giant deposits of phosphorites were discovered and even their mining began, but soon, due to environmental considerations, all work was reduced to a minimum. Even before the start of reforms in Mongolia, with the help of the USSR, zeolites, minerals of the aluminosilicate group, were successfully searched for, which are used in animal husbandry and agriculture as adsorbents and biostimulants.

Industry.

A significant number of manufacturing enterprises are concentrated in Ulaanbaatar, and in the city of Darkhan, to the north of the capital, there is a coal mining, iron foundry and steelmaking complex. Initially, the local industry was based almost exclusively on the processing of animal raw materials, and the main types of manufactured products were woolen fabrics, felt, leather goods, food products. Many new industrial enterprises appeared in Mongolia after the end of World War II - especially in the 1950s and early 1960s, when the country received significant financial assistance from the Soviet Union and China. In the 1980s, local industry provided approximately 1/3 of the national product of Mongolia, while in 1940 it was only 17%. After the end of World War II, the share of heavy industry in the total volume of industrial production increased significantly. There are more than two dozen cities with enterprises of national importance: in addition to the already named Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan, the largest ones are Erdenet, Sukhebaatar, Baganur, Choibalsan. Mongolia produces more than a thousand types of industrial and agricultural products, most of which are consumed domestically; furs, wool, leather, leather and fur products, livestock and livestock products, phosphorites, fluorites, molybdenum ore are exported.

Transport.

Only in the middle of the 20th century from Ulaanbaatar to the administrative centers of the aimags, roads were laid (mostly unpaved). The strategic highway Naushki - Ulaanbaatar (400 km) became the first tarmac road in Mongolia. In 1949, the construction of a section of the railway connecting Ulaanbaatar with the Trans-Siberian Railway in the territory of the Soviet Union was completed. The line was later extended further south, and in 1956 it joined the Chinese rail network. Although passing through the Mongolian land Railway served mainly for the transportation of goods between China and the Soviet Union, this highway to a large extent contributed to the economic development of Mongolia itself. In the late 1980s, almost 3/4 of freight traffic in the country was carried out by rail.

Air routes connect Mongolia with Russia, China, Vietnam, Japan. Mongolia's own aircraft fleet is small, and long-range air routes serve aircraft from other countries. Mongolia's own aviation has regular air communication with all aimags of the country.

Trade.

Until 1991, more than 90% of Mongolia's foreign trade was with the other countries of the socialist community, primarily the Soviet Union. Japan was Mongolia's leading trading partner among the capitalist countries. Today, the main Mongolian exports are today minerals and metal ores, as well as livestock products. The country mainly imports machinery and equipment, oil products, and consumer goods. The monetary unit of Mongolia is the tugrik, and the small change is called mungu (100 mungu in 1 tugrik).

Society.

Starting from the 17th century. In Mongolia, the principle of two branches of government - secular and religious - took shape. The head of secular power - the kagan, or the Great Khan, stood at the head of the Mongolian state. The state was divided into several aimaks, the ruler (and hence the feudal lord) of each of them was a khan, who was directly subordinate to the Great Khan. Aimaks were divided into khoshuns headed by noyons (petty feudal lords who inherited their allotment) and taishas (who earned allotments in the public service). Khoshuns were divided into several bugs. All these subdivisions of the Mongolian state retained the tribal structure, which was later replaced by an ethnic one. Each of the tribes included in the 13th century. part of the Mongol Empire, subordinated not only to the Great Khan, but also to their immediate rulers - khans, noyons and taishas, ​​on whom it depended everyday life people.

In wartime, the order established under Genghis Khan operated. The entire male adult population turned into a combat-ready cavalry, which consisted of two wings: the western (baruun gar) and the eastern (dzhun gar). Each wing was divided into tumens (10,000 warriors), tumens were divided into 10 myanga (1,000 warriors), myanga were divided into hundreds (100 warriors), a hundred into tens. Each unit had its own leader, who was responsible for both the morale and the equipment of the riders. The tribal principle of organization was maintained here too, close relatives went into battle shoulder to shoulder, and this made the army even more combat-ready.

Religious authority was also built according to the hierarchical principle. It was headed by a "living god" - Bogdo-gegen, who was chosen as a child as an incarnation of one of the previous "gods". The next steps were occupied by shiretui - the abbots of the monasteries, followed by different categories of lamas who officially accepted monasticism. At the very bottom were shabiners - serf arats (cattle breeders), whom their khans and noyons donated as a gift to Buddhist monasteries.

The traditional way of life of the Mongols corresponds to the geographical features of the territory. Animal husbandry provides them with food, clothing, material for the construction of dwellings, and fuel. As hereditary nomads, the inhabitants of Mongolia prefer portable dwellings - these are yurts covered with felt felt (their Mongolian name is ger), they live in them both in summer and in winter; and tents made of light maikhana fabric, which are used by hunters and shepherds who drive cattle to summer pastures.

The staple foods of the Mongols include milk, butter, cheese, lamb, as well as barley, flour, millet and tea. The main sour milk drink is airag (better known under the Turkic name "koumiss"), which is made from mare's milk. Thanks to sheep, the Mongols get wool, from which they make felt mats for yurts and sheepskin for sewing warm clothes; have milk, cheese and butter in summer, and mutton in winter; dry sheep, but much more cow dung and manure is used as fuel. Mongolian horsemanship is legendary, and horse racing, along with wrestling and archery, are among the national species sports.

Although at present the majority of the Mongolian population lives in cities and many people work in various industrial enterprises, the old nomadic traditions are still not forgotten. There are many people in the country who successfully combine traditional and modern ways of life. Many of those who live in well-appointed city houses tend to have a summer cottage in the form of a yurt or spend holidays with relatives in the hudon (countryside). From there, dried or frozen lamb (sometimes whole carcasses), butter, dry cottage cheese are brought to city apartments, they are stored on balconies and in the basements of houses as a food supply for the winter.

Education.

The education system in Mongolia is controlled by the state. In 1991, 489,000 students studied in the country's primary and secondary schools, while the number of students in higher educational institutions was 13,200. Mongolian State University in Ulaanbaatar has faculties of economics, mathematics, natural sciences, physics and social sciences. In addition, the capital has a Technical University, as well as Agricultural and Medical Universities. Special educational institutions include the Higher School of Buddhism, which has existed since 1976, the Art School, and the relatively recently established School of Business.

HISTORY OF MONGOLIA

The first steps on the way to the state.

At the beginning of the 12th c. scattered Mongolian tribes made the first attempt to unite and create a state that looked more like a union of tribes and went down in history under the name Khamag Mongol. Its first ruler was Khaidu Khan. His grandson Khabul Khan was already able to win a temporary victory over the neighboring regions of Northern China, and he was paid off with a small tribute. However, his successor Ambagai Khan was captured by the Tatar tribes who were at war with the Mongols and handed over to the Chinese, who put him to a painful execution. A few years later, Yesugei-bagatur, the father of Temuchin, the future conqueror of the world Genghis Khan, was killed by the Tatars.

Temujin spent his childhood and youth in poverty. He came to power gradually, at first he was patronized by Wang Khan, the ruler of the Kereites in Central Mongolia. As soon as Temujin gained enough supporters, he conquered the three most powerful states in Mongolia: the Tatar one in the east (1202), his former patrons the Kereites in Central Mongolia (1203) and the Naimans in the west (1204). At the kurultai - the congress of the Mongol tribes in 1206 - he was proclaimed the supreme khan of all the Mongols and received the title of Genghis Khan.

Creation of an empire.

Genghis Khan ruled Mongolia from 1206 to 1227. Having done away with internal enemies, he began to take revenge on the Jin rulers in northern China for the humiliation suffered by his ancestors. As a result of three campaigns, he conquered the Tanguts, whose kingdom Xi-Xia was located between his possessions and the state of Jin. In 1211, the Mongols attacked the Jin state and occupied the entire territory north of the Great Wall of China. In 1213 they broke through the Wall and poured into Northern China; by the spring of 1214, the entire territory north of the Huang He was in the hands of the Mongols. The Jin ruler bought the world by paying a huge ransom, and the Mongols left. Shortly thereafter, it was decided to move the Jin capital from Beijing, which the Mongols interpreted as a resumption of hostilities, again attacked China and ravaged Beijing.

The next year, Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia. Now his attention was drawn to Central and Western Asia. The Naiman leader Kuchluk, after the defeat he suffered in 1204, fled to the west and found refuge in the state of the Karakitays, where he managed to seize the throne. His actions posed a constant threat to the western borders of the state of Genghis Khan. In 1218, the Mongol army under the command of the great commander Jebe invaded the lands of the Karakitais. Kuchluk fled to Afghanistan, where he was caught and killed.

Walk west.

The conquest of this Central Asian territory gave the Mongols a common border with Khorezmshah Muhammad, the ruler of Khorezm, which lay southeast of the Aral Sea. Mohammed owned a gigantic territory stretching from India to Baghdad and north beyond the Aral Sea. War was inevitable under all conditions, but it was accelerated by the assassination of the ambassadors of Genghis Khan.

In autumn 1219 the Mongols reached the border town of Otrar. Leaving part of the army to besiege the city, Genghis Khan quickly reached the large cities of Bukhara and Samarkand and plundered them. The Sultan fled in a panic to Iran, pursued by the Mongol army, and he eventually died on one of the islands in the Caspian Sea. Upon learning of his death, the Mongols turned north, crossed the Caucasus Mountains, entered the expanses of Rus', defeated the Russian-Polovtsian army on the Kalka River in 1223 and went back to the east.

In the autumn of 1220, Genghis Khan began a campaign to the southeast to the lands bordering Afghanistan. He sent his younger son Tolui to complete the conquest of Khorasan, which was then much larger than the present province of Eastern Iran and included such large cities as Merv, Herat, Balkh and Nishapur. This area has never been able to fully recover from the devastation caused there by the Mongol invasion.

In the autumn of 1221, Genghis Khan struck at Jalal-ad-Din, the son of Khorezmshah Muhammad. Pressed with his troops to the Indus, surrounded by the Mongols, Jalal-ad-Din rushed into the river and escaped by crossing to the other side. For several years he attacked the Mongols until he died in Anatolia in 1231.

Return to the East.

The battle on the banks of the Indus ended the campaign of Genghis Khan to the west. Having learned about unrest among the Tanguts, he turned back, but moved slowly and returned to his headquarters in Mongolia only three years after he left India. The last campaign against the Tanguts ended in their complete defeat. Genghis Khan did not live to see the completion of his last campaign. He died while resting at his summer camp on 25 August 1227.

Army.

The Mongols owed their military success not only to the size of their troops, since the entire army of Genghis Khan, apparently, did not exceed 150-250 thousand people. The strength of the Mongol army lay in organization, discipline and tactics. Discipline made it possible to attack in close formation and thus gain the upper hand over the numerically superior but poorly built enemy ranks. The standard tactic of the Mongol army was to envelop the enemy flank with a whole wing of their troops to strike from the rear. The papal envoy John de Plano Carpini, who visited the homeland of the Mongols after their invasion of Central Europe in 1240, argued that European princes could not resist a second such invasion if they did not borrow from the enemy his methods of warfare.

The great advantage of the Mongols was their mobility. During the campaigns, they led so many horses with them that each warrior could ride a fresh horse daily for three or four days in a row. Once the enemy's initial resistance was broken, the Mongols would take over their territory at a rate that was unmatched by anyone until the advent of World War II tanks. The widest rivers did not present a serious obstacle for them, they crossed them in a special kind of collapsible boats, which they carried with them as standard equipment. Similarly, the Mongols were skilled in siege: there was a case when they even diverted a river and broke into a besieged city along a dry channel.

Empire organization.

The system of government of the empire was based on a set of laws called Great Jasoy. From the surviving fragment of this code of laws, one gets the impression that the yasa was an alloy of Mongolian customary law with additions made by Genghis Khan himself. Among the first is, for example, the prohibition to poke a knife into the fire, so as not to offend the spirit of the hearth. Of particular interest is the yasa, which freed the clergy of the conquered peoples from paying taxes, performing military service and forced labor. This position is in good agreement with the readiness of the Mongols to take into their service officials of all nationalities and beliefs. Genghis Khan himself kept Muslims and Chinese as advisers. Its brilliant first minister Yelü Chucai was a member of one of the Khitan aristocratic families. It is believed that it was on his advice that the Mongols stopped the wholesale extermination of the settled population and began to use the talents of the conquered peoples to manage their empire. In Persia, under the Ilkhans, not only Muslims, but also Christians and Jews reached high positions, and during the reign of Khubilai, the grandson of Genghis Khan, administrators were recruited throughout the empire and in Europe.

With the exception of the clergy, all the conquered peoples, in the interests of collecting taxes and recruiting into the army, were divided into the same tens, hundreds, etc., as the Mongols. So, the poll tax was calculated immediately for ten people. The maintenance of each pit, a post station with a change of horses, was assigned to two ten thousandth units, which were responsible for providing the pit with the necessary food, horses and services. The pit system was introduced under Ogedei, the successor of Genghis Khan. Marco Polo describes this system in great detail as he saw it in action in China during Kublai's reign. Thanks to this system with the change of horses, the couriers of the Great Khan could cover up to 400 km of travel per day.

Before his death, Genghis Khan expressed his desire to be succeeded by his third son Ogedei (r. 1229–1241). The choice turned out to be right - under the skillful and energetic leadership of Ogedei, the empire flourished and expanded its borders. One of the first decisions of the new khan was the construction of an imperial capital. In 1235, the city of Karakorum (Kharahorin) was built, located 320 km southwest of the place where Ulaanbaatar is currently located.

All the time while Genghis Khan was on a campaign in the west, the war continued in Northern China. At the beginning of 1232, Ogedei and Tolui (the youngest son of Genghis Khan) themselves set out on a campaign. Two years later, they reached their goal: the last emperor of the Jin dynasty fled and subsequently committed suicide.

Hike to Europe.

Another army of Ogedei, under the command of Batu, the son of the eldest son of Genghis Khan Jochi, and the commander Subedei invaded Europe. Mongol troops crossed the Volga in the autumn of 1237 and attacked the principalities of Central Rus'. At the beginning of 1238 they turned to the north, but, not having reached 100 km to Novgorod, they retreated to the south, trying to avoid the spring thaw. In the summer of 1240, the Mongols resumed their campaign and in December captured and sacked Kyiv. The way to Central Europe was open.

Until that time, the most controversial reports about the Mongols had been received in Europe. The most common version was that this powerful ruler of India, King David (some said that he was the king of the Jews) rose against the Saracens. Only the invasion of Batu made Europe realize how little it knows the real state of affairs. The right flank of Batu's army passed through Poland and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Polish-German troops in the battle of Liegnitz (Silesia) on April 9, 1241, and then turned south to join the main forces in Hungary. Having won a victory there on April 11, the Mongols became masters of all the lands east of the Danube. In December, they crossed the river and invaded Croatia, pursuing the Hungarian king Bela IV, who was fleeing from them. Apparently, the army was already ready to invade Western Europe when a messenger arrived with the news that Ogedei had died in November. In the spring of 1242, the Mongol troops left Europe and never returned there.

Empire under the grandchildren of Genghis Khan.

The death of Ogedei opened a period of interregnum that lasted almost five years, during which the Merkit khansha Turakina, his widow and mother of his son Guyuk, acted as regent. At the same time, the Mongol armies defeated the ruler of the Seljuk Sultanate of Kony in northwestern Iran, thus pushing the empire's borders to the Mediterranean Sea.

At a kurultai that met near Karakorum in 1246, Guyuk (r. 1246–1248) was finally elected the Great Khan. This kurultai was attended by the Franciscan monk Plano Carpini, who delivered letters from Pope Innocent IV to the Mongolian court. Guyuk rudely rejected the pope's protest against the devastation of Poland and Hungary and invited the pope, together with all the crowned persons of Europe, to personally appear before him and take an oath of allegiance to him.

If Guyuk had lived longer, he would not have escaped the civil war with his cousin Batu. Guyuk served under Batu during the campaign against Rus', but quarreled with him and left for Mongolia even before the invasion of Central Europe. At the beginning of 1248, Guyuk set out from Karakorum, apparently intending to attack Batu, but died on the way.

After the death of Guyuk, as after the death of his father, a long period of interregnum began. The widow Ogul-Gamish became the ruler-regent of the empire. Batu, the eldest of the Mongol khans, convened a kurultai to choose Guyuk's successor. Kurultai chose Möngke (r. 1251–1259), grandson of Genghis Khan, son of Tolui, conqueror of Merv and Nishapur. Due to the opposition of the sons of Guyuk and their supporters, the ceremony of the Great Khan's accession to the throne took place only in 1251. At the same time, a conspiracy against the newly elected Great Khan was uncovered, and the conspirators were expelled or executed. Among those executed was the former regent. Ogedei's grandson Khaidu fled to Central Asia, where he remained the worst enemy of the great khans throughout his long life. Thus, among the descendants of Genghis Khan, the first of the splits occurred, which eventually led to the death of the Mongol Empire.

For the first time since Ogedei's death, the Mongols could think of new conquests. In 1253, Kublai Khan, the brother of the Great Khan, invaded the possessions of the Song dynasty in southern China, and his other brother, Hulagu, went on a campaign to the west, ending with the sack of Baghdad. In the autumn of 1258, Mongke himself led a campaign against the Sung Empire, during which he died in August 1259, leading the siege of one of the cities.

The death of Mongke meant the actual end of the united Mongol Empire. His brother Khubilai and Khubilai's successor Temur still held the title of Great Khan, but the Empire had already begun to disintegrate into separate states.

YUAN DYNASTY IN CHINA (1271–1368)

The Yuan, or Mongol dynasty, in China became famous thanks to its founder Kublai (r. 1260-1294). Khubilai ruled both as Great Khan and Emperor of China. The Golden Horde, founded by Batu, finally separated from the Mongol Empire, but Khubilai continued to be recognized as the Great Khan in Iran and, to a certain extent, in Central Asia. At home in Mongolia, he suppressed the rebellion of his brother Arig-Bug, who claimed the throne, kept in fear the sworn enemy Kaidu, heir to the overthrown house of Ogedei.

In China, Khubilai did much more. In 1271 he proclaimed a new Chinese Yuan dynasty. The long-term war with the Song dynasty from South China ended victoriously in 1276 with the capture of Emperor Song by the commander Khubilai Bayan, although the Guangzhou region held out until 1279. For the first time in 300 years, China was united under the rule of a single ruler; Korea and Tibet became submissive tributaries, the Thai tribes (later to found Siam) were expelled from their land in South China, and the countries of Southeast Asia were reduced to at least nominal vassals.

Overseas campaigns were not so successful. The army sent to the island of Java, deceived by the local ruler, the cunning prince Vijaya, defeated the enemy troops, after which Vijaya forced his unlucky allies to leave the island, exhausting them with guerrilla warfare. The attempt to invade Japan had catastrophic consequences. In 1284, a typhoon, known in Japanese history as the "Wind of the Gods" (kamikaze), sank the Mongol armada, and the Japanese captured or killed almost the entire Chinese army of 150,000 men.

Domestically, Khubilai's reign was marked by peace, flourishing trade, religious tolerance, and cultural uplift. An important source of information about this period is the notes of the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who served at the court of the Great Khan.

Decline and Exile of the Yuan Dynasty.

Temür, the grandson of Khubilai (r. 1294–1307), inherited some of his grandfather's abilities, but after his death the dynasty began to decline. His successors failed to accomplish anything significant due to constant dynastic strife. The last Mongol emperor of China, Toghon Temur, ruled from 1333 to 1368, only Khubilai was in power longer than him. Endless intrigues and strife among the Mongol nobility led to numerous rebellions, and by the end of 1350 most of southern China had passed into the hands of partisan leaders. One of them was a peasant son and former Buddhist monk named Zhu Yuanzhang, the future emperor and founder of the Ming Dynasty. Having defeated his rivals and seized their possessions, by 1368 Zhu became the ruler of all China south of the Yangtze. The Mongols, mired in civil strife, did not seem to react to the loss of this vast area and did not offer any effective resistance when, in 1368, Zhu moved his army north. Toghon Temur fled, and Zhu's troops triumphantly entered his capital. Togon Temur died in exile in 1370.

THE GOLDEN HORDE IN THE RUSSIAN LANDS (1242–1502)

Batu (Batu). To his eldest son, Jochi, Genghis Khan gave a vast, without clear boundaries, ulus, stretching from the eastern outskirts of present-day Kazakhstan to the banks of the Volga. After the death of Jochi in 1227, the eastern part of the ulus in Western Siberia (later called the White Horde) went to his eldest son. Baty (Batu) (r. 1242–1255), the second son of Jochi, inherited the western part of the ulus, which included Khorezm and the southern Russian steppes.

Returning from a campaign in Hungary in 1242, Batu founded a khanate, later called the Golden Horde (from the Turkic-Mongolian "horde", "camp", "parking", "camping"). The Kipchak Turks, who had inhabited this region since ancient times, mixed with the conquerors, while their language gradually replaced the Mongolian.

The lord of the Russian principalities, Batu, lived on the eastern bank of the Volga, in the summer he went down the river and spent the winter at the mouth of the river, where he built his capital, Saray. Plano Carpini and another monk, Guillaume Rubruk, who both visited Batu during a trip to Mongolia and on the way back, left a detailed description of his court.

It is believed that Batu died in 1255. After the short reign of his two sons, Batu was succeeded by his brother Berke (r. 1258–1266).

Wars with the "Persian" Mongols.

Unlike his brother, who remained faithful to the religion of his ancestors, Berke converted to Islam. His conversion explains his hostility to the "Persian" Mongols, who destroyed the Arab Caliphate and remained for the most part shamanists, Buddhists or Nestorians. He was equally hostile to his cousin, the Great Khan Kublai, and supported the claims to the throne of Kublai's rivals, Arig-Bug and Kaidu.

However, Berke paid the main attention to the war with his cousin Hulagu, the first Ilkhan of Persia. Apparently, at first, luck accompanied the "Persian" Mongols, who approached the southern outskirts of Saray. Here they were defeated by the Golden Horde and suffered heavy losses during the retreat. The war flared up sporadically until Berke's death in 1266.

Independent development of the Golden Horde.

Berke's nephew and successor Mongke-Temur (r. 1266–1280), unlike his predecessors, maintained good relations with the Russian vassals. In accordance with Great Yasa, the code of laws of Genghis Khan, he issued a decree that exempted the Orthodox clergy from taxes and military service.

Mongke-Temur's cousin and Berke's cousin-nephew, Khan Nogai, even before the start of the wars with the Persian Mongols, went on campaigns against Byzantium. Now, having become the son-in-law of the Byzantine emperor and the de facto ruler of the Lower Danube region, Nogai, after the death of Mongke Temur, was the most powerful figure in the Golden Horde. But Nogai was eventually captured and killed by his rival Tokta.

The remainder of Tokta's reign (d. 1312) passed relatively quietly. His nephew and successor Uzbek (r. 1313-1342) was a Muslim, under him Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. The long and generally prosperous rule of Uzbek is considered the golden age of the Golden Horde Mongols. Soon after the death of Uzbek, a period of anarchy set in, during which the military leader Mamai, who played approximately the same role as Nogai in the previous generation, became the true ruler of the Golden Horde. During this period, the struggle of the Russian people against the Tatar yoke began. Mamai was defeated by the Grand Duke of Moscow and Vladimir Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo field in 1380.

Tokhtamysh and Tamerlane (Timur).

Taking advantage of the Russian victories, the White Horde Khan Tokhtamysh invaded the Golden Horde in 1378 and captured Saray. The decisive battle between Mamai and Tokhtamysh took place in the Crimea and ended in the complete victory of the White Horde. Mamai hid in the Genoese trading post, where he was killed. Having become the ruler of the Golden and White Hordes, Tokhtamysh again reduced the Russians to his vassals and tributaries, sacking Moscow in 1382.

It seemed that the Golden Horde had never been so strong. However, having invaded the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, Tokhtamysh made an enemy in the person of the great Central Asian conqueror Tamerlane (Timur), who until recently was his patron. Tamerlane by 1390 took possession of the territory from India to the Caspian Sea. He helped Tokhtamysh come to power in the White Horde, but when Tokhtamysh encroached on his lands, Tamerlane decided to put an end to him. In the battle of 1391, one of the armies of Tokhtamysh was defeated; In February 1395, Tamerlane crossed the Caucasus, finished off the remnants of Tokhtamysh's troops, pushed the enemy to the north, and on the way back devastated the lands of the Golden Horde.

After Tamerlane left for Central Asia, Tokhtamysh regained the throne, but in 1398 he was expelled by his rival from the White Horde. He was sheltered by the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who acted on his behalf, but was defeated. Pursued by enemies, Tokhtamysh fled to Siberia, where in the winter of 1406-1407 he was captured and killed.

Disintegration of the Horde.

The final disintegration of the Golden Horde began with the separation of the Kazan and Crimean khanates from it in the middle of the 15th century. In alliance with these khanates, Grand Duke Ivan III of Moscow (r. 1462–1505) managed to isolate the Golden Horde, after which he refused to pay tribute to Khan Akhmat (r. 1460–1481). In 1480 Akhmat moved to Moscow. For several months, the opposing armies stood against each other, without engaging in battle, on the Ugra River, then in the autumn Akhmat retreated. This meant the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'. The Golden Horde itself outlived him by only a few years. She received a mortal blow in 1502 from the Crimean Khan, who burned Saray. The successor states of the Golden Horde, the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan on the Middle and Lower Volga, were captured by Russia under Ivan the Terrible in 1552 and 1556. The Crimean Khanate, having become a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, existed until 1783 and was also annexed to Russia.

ILKHANS IN PERSIA (1258–1334)

Hulagu's conquests.

By the middle of the 13th century. The Mongols controlled almost the entire territory of Persia. Having defeated the Assassins, adherents of a sect of fanatical opponents of orthodox Islam, Hulagu, the brother of the Great Khan Mongke, was able to start a war with the Arab Caliphate itself. From his headquarters, he sent a demand to the caliph, the religious head of Islam, to surrender, but received no answer. In November 1257 the Mongol offensive against Baghdad began. In February 1258 Caliph al-Mustasim surrendered to the mercy of the conqueror, and Baghdad was plundered and destroyed. Al-Mustasim was wrapped in a felt mat and trampled to death: the Mongols were superstitiously afraid of shedding royal blood. Thus ended the history of the Arab Caliphate, which began in the 7th century.

Having captured Baghdad, Hulagu withdrew northward to Azerbaijan, the seat of his Persian dynasty of the Ilkhans (“tribal khans”). From Azerbaijan in 1259 he went on a campaign against Syria. Soon Damascus and Aleppo fell, and the conquerors reached the border of Egypt. Here Hulagu found the news of the death of the Great Khan Mongke. Leaving his commander Ked-Bug in Syria with a much smaller army, Hulagu turned back. The Mongols were opposed by the Egyptian commander Baybars (“Panther”), most likely a Polovtsian by origin, who at one time was sold into slavery in Egypt, where he made a career in the Mamluk army. The Mamluks defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in Palestine. Ked-Bug was captured and executed. All Syria up to the Euphrates was annexed to Mamluk Egypt.

Ilkhans after Hulagu.

Hulagu's son and his successor Abaqa Khan (r. 1265–1282) continued the sluggish war with Berke, which ended with the latter's death. In the east, he repulsed the invasion of Borak, the ruler of the Chagatai ulus in Central Asia. Less successful were his wars with the Mamluks, the Mongol army that invaded Syria was defeated and retreated beyond the Euphrates.

In 1295, Ghazan Khan, the grandson of Abaqa Khan (r. 1295–1304), ascended the throne, beginning his short but brilliant reign. Ghazan Khan not only converted to Islam, but made it the state religion. Ghazan Khan showed a keen interest in the history and traditions of his people and was considered a great authority in these matters. On his advice, his vizier, the historian Rashid ad-Din, wrote his famous work Jami at-Tawarikh(Collection of annals), an extensive historical encyclopedia.

The last rulers of the Ilkhan dynasty were Ulzeitu (r. 1304–1316) and Abu Said (r. 1304–1316). After them, a period of fragmentation began in the country, when local dynasties came to power in its various parts, swept away by the end of the century by the invasion of Tamerlane. The reign of the Ilkhans was marked by the flourishing of Persian culture. Architecture and art reached a high development, and the poets of that era, such as Saadi and Jalaluddin Rumi, went down in history as classics of world literature.

CHAGATAI ULUS IN CENTRAL ASIA

To his second son Chagatai, a recognized expert on Mongolian law, Genghis Khan gave the lands stretching from Eastern Xinjiang to Samarkand, called the Chagatai ulus. Chagatai himself and his first successors continued to lead the nomadic lifestyle of their ancestors in the steppes of the eastern part of their possessions, while the main cities in the west were under the jurisdiction of the great khans.

The Chagatai ulus was probably the weakest of the successor states of the Mongol Empire. The great khans (even Khubilai's opponent Khaidu, until his death in 1301) imprisoned and dismissed the Chagatai khans at their own discretion. In 1347 Kazan, the last ruler of Transoxiana from the house of Chagatai, died in a battle with the army of the Turkic nobility, which, until the rise of Tamerlane, actually ruled in Transoxiana - the region of the right bank of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya basin.

Tamerlane (Timur) (1336-1405) was born in the vicinity of Samarkand. He achieved power through a combination of treachery and military genius. Unlike the methodical and persistent collector of the state of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane collected wealth. As expected, after his death the state collapsed.

In the eastern part of the Chagatai ulus, the Chagataids managed to survive the invasion of Tamerlane and retained power until the 16th century. In Maverannahr (Transoxiana) itself, Tamerlane's successors did not last long and were expelled by the Sheibanids, another branch of Genghis Khan's house. Their ancestor Sheiban, brother of Batu, took part in the campaign against Hungary, after which he received possession of the ulus east of the Ural Mountains. In the 14th century The Sheibanids migrated to the southeast and filled the vacuum left by the White Horde, heading the union of tribes that was called Uzbeks since the reign of the Golden Horde Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). During this period, the Kazakhs first appear, a group that broke away from the Uzbeks.

In 1500, the Uzbek Khan Muhammad Sheibani captured Maverannahr and founded the Bukhara Khanate. Babur, the great-grandson of Tamerlane, fled through the mountains to India, where he founded the Mughal dynasty, which ruled almost the entire subcontinent from 1526 until the conquest of India by the British in the 18th and 19th centuries. Various dynasties were replaced in the Bukhara Khanate, until the last khan was deposed by the Soviet authorities in 1920.

LATER MONGOLIAN STATES

Western Mongols (Oirats).

The descendants of Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan, who were expelled from China in 1368, returned to their homeland and found themselves under the rule of other Mongol tribes, the Oirats. Having defeated Uldziy Temur, the great-great-grandson of the last Yuan emperor, the Oirats in 1412 struck to the west, where they defeated the eastern Chagataids. The Oirat ruler Esen Khan owned a vast territory stretching from Lake Balkhash, and in the south to the Great Wall of China. Having been refused a marriage to a Chinese princess, he overcame the Wall, defeated the Chinese and captured the Chinese emperor. The state he created did not long outlive him. After the death of Esen Khan in 1455, the heirs quarreled, and the eastern Mongols pushed them to the west, uniting again under the rule of Dayan Khan.

Khoshuts.

One of the Oirat tribes, the Khoshuts, settled in 1636 in the region of Lake Kukunor, in what is now the Chinese province of Qinghai. Here they were destined to play decisive role in the history of neighboring Tibet. Gushi Khan, the ruler of the Khoshuts, was converted to Buddhism of the Tibetan Gelug school or, as it was also called, “yellow hats” (according to the color of the hats worn by the clergy of this school). At the request of the head of the Gelug school of the Dalai Lama V, Gushi Khan captured the head of the rival Sakya school and in 1642 declared the Dalai Lama V the sovereign ruler of all Buddhists in central Tibet, becoming under him a secular ruler until his death in 1656.

Torguts, Derbets, Khoyts and their Kalmyk descendants.

During the 16th - early 17th centuries. the western Mongols, forced out of their lands by their neighbors, the Chinese from the south, the Mongols from the east, the Kazakhs from the west, started looking for new territories. Having received permission from the Russian tsar, they came to Russia in several streams from 1609 to 1637 and settled in the southern Russian steppes between the Volga and the Don. Ethnically, the group that left for Russia was a mixture of several Western Mongolian peoples: Torguts, Derbets, Khoyts and a certain number of Khoshuts. The number of the group, which began to be called the Kalmyks, was more than 270 thousand people. The fate of the Kalmyks in Russia was not easy. At first they had a fairly independent Kalmyk Khanate in their internal affairs. However, the harassment by the Russian government displeased the Kalmyk khans, and in 1771 they decided to return back to Western Mongolia and took about half of their subjects with them. Almost all died along the way. In Russia, the khanate was liquidated, and the remaining population was subordinated to the Astrakhan governor.

Dzungars and Dzungaria.

Part of the Oirats - Choros, several clans of Torguts, Bayats, Tumets, Olets created a khanate in the west of Mongolia, called the Dzungar (from the Mong. "jungar", - "left hand", once - the left wing of the Mongol army). All subjects of this khanate were called Dzhungars. The territory on which it was located was (and is) called Dzungaria.

The greatest of the Dzungar khans, Galdan (r. 1671–1697), was the last Mongol conqueror. His career began inconspicuously as a Buddhist monk in Lhasa. After being released from his vow by the 6th Dalai Lama, in order to avenge his brother's death, he founded a state stretching from western Xinjiang to eastern Mongolia. But in 1690, and then in 1696, his advance to the east was stopped by the troops of the Manchu Emperor Kangxi.

Galdan's nephew and successor, Tsevan-Rabdan (r. 1697–1727), expanded the state westward, capturing Tashkent, and northward, stopping the advance of the Russians in Siberia. In 1717, he tried to prevent Chinese penetration into Tibet, but the Chinese troops expelled him from there too, planting the Dalai Lama VII, convenient for China, in Lhasa. After a period of civil war, the Chinese deposed the last Dzungar Khan in 1757 and turned the Dzungar possessions into the Chinese province of Xinjiang. The Choros people, where all the Dzungar khans came from, was almost completely exterminated by the Chinese, and Turks, Mongols and even Manchus were settled on their lands, who were joined by close relatives of the Dzungars Kalmyks who returned from the Volga.

Eastern Mongols.

After the victory of the Oirats over Uldziy Temur, the representatives of the Khubilai's house almost exterminated each other in a bloody civil strife. Mandagol, the 27th successor of Genghis Khan, died in battle with his nephew and heir. When the latter was killed three years later, the only surviving member of the once large family was his seven-year-old son, Batu-Menge of the Chahar tribe. Abandoned by his mother, he was taken in by the young widow of Mandagol, Mandugai, who achieved his proclamation as Khan of the Eastern Mongols. Throughout his younger years, she was regent and married him at 18. He went down in history under the name of Dayan Khan (r. 1470-1543) and managed to unite the Eastern Mongols into a single state. Following the traditions of Genghis Khan, Dayan Khan divided his tribes into "left wing", i.e. the eastern, directly subordinate to the khan, and the "right wing", i.e. western, subordinate to one of the closest relatives of the khan.

Acceptance of Buddhism.

The new Mongolian state did not long outlive its founder. The collapse is probably associated with the gradual adoption by the Eastern Mongols of the pacifist Buddhism of the Tibetan Gelug school.

The first converts were the Ordos, the "right wing" tribe. One of their leaders converted his powerful cousin Altan Khan, the ruler of the Tumets, to Buddhism. The head of the Gelug school was invited in 1578 to a meeting of the Mongol rulers, where he established the Mongol church and received the title of Dalai Lama from Altan Khan (Dalai is the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan words meaning "wide as the ocean", which should be understood as "comprehensive"). Since then, the successors of the head of the Gelug school have held this title. The next to be converted was the great Khan of the Chahars himself. From 1588 Khalkha also began to convert to the new faith. In 1602 the head of the Buddhist community of Mongolia, its supreme hierarch, was declared to be the incarnation of Jebtsun Damba Khutukhta, one of the first preachers of Buddhism in Tibet. The institution of "living gods", already established by that time in Tibetan Buddhism, took root in Mongolia as well. From 1602 to 1924 - the year when the Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed - 8 "living gods" stood at the head of the church, replacing each other in turn. 75 years later, the 9th "living god" appeared. The conversion of the Mongols to Buddhism explains, at least in part, their rapid subjugation to a new wave of conquerors - the Manchus. Before the attack on China, the Manchus already dominated the area later called Inner Mongolia. Chakhar Khan Ligdan (r. 1604–1634), who bore the title of Great Khan, the last independent successor of Genghis Khan, tried to subjugate the southern Mongols, but they became vassal to the Manchus. Ligdan fled to Tibet, and the Chahars also submitted to the Manchus. The Khalkhas held out longer, but in 1691 the Manchu emperor Kangxi, an opponent of the Dzungar Khan Galdan, called the rulers of the Khalkha clans to a meeting, at which they recognized themselves as his vassals. Vassal dependence of Mongolia from Qing China continued until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1911-1912, a revolution took place in China, during which the Manchurian Qing dynasty was overthrown and the Republic of China was proclaimed. Outer Mongolia (territorially coinciding with current Mongolia) declared its independence. Inner Mongolia wanted to do the same, but its independence movement was crushed and it remained part of China.

Independence of Outer Mongolia.

The head of independent Mongolia was the 8th head of the Buddhist church "living god" Bogdo-gegen. Now he was not only a religious, but also a secular ruler of the country, and Mongolia turned into a theocratic state. The inner circle of the Bogdo Gegen consisted of the highest strata of the spiritual and feudal aristocracy. Fearing a Chinese invasion, Mongolia moved closer to Russia. In 1912, Russia promised to support the "autonomy" of Outer Mongolia, and the very next year its status as an independent state was recognized in a joint Russian-Chinese declaration. In accordance with the Kyakhta Agreement concluded by China, Russia and Mongolia in 1915, the autonomy of Outer Mongolia under Chinese suzerainty was officially recognized. During this period, Russia and especially Japan sought to strengthen their positions in Inner Mongolia and Manchuria. In 1918, after the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, a revolutionary party was formed in Mongolia under the leadership of D. Sukhe-Bator, calling not only for the liberation of the country from foreign dependence, but also for the removal of all clergy and aristocrats from the government. In 1919, the Anfu clique, led by General Xu Shuzheng, restored Chinese control over Mongolia. Meanwhile, supporters of D. Sukhe-Bator united with members of the circle of Kh. Choibalsan (another local revolutionary leader), laying the foundation for the formation of the Mongolian People's Party (MNP). In 1921, the united revolutionary forces of Mongolia, with the support of the Soviet Red Army, defeated the troops opposing them, including the Asian division of the Russian White Guard general Baron Ungern von Sternberg. In Altan-Bulak, on the border with Kyakhta, a provisional government of Mongolia was elected, and in the same 1921, after negotiations, an agreement was signed on the establishment of friendly relations with Soviet Russia.

The provisional government, set up in 1921, operated under conditions of a limited monarchy, and the Bogd Gegen remained the nominal head of state. During this period, within the government itself, there was a struggle between radical and conservative groups. In 1923 Sukhe-Bator died, and in 1924 Bogdo Gegen. A republic was established in the country. Outer Mongolia became known as the Mongolian People's Republic, and the capital Urga was renamed Ulaanbaatar. The Mongolian People's Party was transformed into the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). In 1924, as a result of negotiations between the Chinese leader Sun Yat-sen and the Soviet leaders, an agreement was signed in which the Soviet Union officially recognized that Outer Mongolia was part of the Republic of China. However, less than a year after its signing, the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the USSR issued a statement to the press that, although Mongolia was recognized by the Soviet government as part of China, it had autonomy, excluding the possibility of Chinese interference in its internal affairs.

In 1929 the Mongolian government organized a campaign to transfer livestock into collective ownership. However, by 1932 it was necessary to make adjustments to the current policy due to the economic devastation and political unrest. Beginning in 1936, Kh. Choibalsan, who opposed forced collectivization, gained the greatest influence in the country. Choibalsan took the post of prime minister of the republic in 1939, and the order he established in Mongolia was in many respects an imitation of Stalin's regime. By the end of the 1930s, most of the Buddhist temples and monasteries were closed; many lamas ended up in prison. In 1939, the Japanese, who by that time had already occupied Manchuria and, to a large extent, Inner Mongolia, invaded the eastern regions of the MPR, but were driven out from there by Soviet troops who came to the aid of Mongolia.

Mongolia after World War II.

In February 1945, at the Yalta Conference, the heads of the Allied governments - Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin - agreed that "the status quo of Outer Mongolia (the Mongolian People's Republic) must be preserved." For the nationalist forces (the Kuomintang Party), which controlled the government of China at that time, this meant the preservation of the position fixed in the Soviet-Chinese agreement of 1924, according to which Outer Mongolia was part of China. However, as the Soviet Union insistently pointed out, the presence in the text of the decisions of the conference of the name "Mongolian People's Republic" meant that Churchill and Roosevelt recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia. China also expressed its readiness to recognize the independence of Mongolia in an agreement with the USSR concluded in August 1945, but subject to the consent of the inhabitants of Outer Mongolia. In October 1945, a plebiscite was held, during which the overwhelming majority of its population agreed that the country should receive the status of an independent state. On January 5, 1946, China officially recognized the Mongolian People's Republic (MPR), and in February of the same year, the MPR signed treaties of friendship and cooperation with China and the Soviet Union.

For several years, relations between the MPR and China (where the Kuomintang was still in power) were overshadowed by a number of border incidents, for which both countries blamed each other. In 1949, representatives of the Chinese nationalist forces accused the Soviet Union of violating the Soviet-Chinese treaty of 1945 by encroaching on the sovereignty of Outer Mongolia. However, already in February 1950, the newly proclaimed People's Republic of China in the new Soviet-Chinese Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance confirmed the validity of the provisions of the 1945 treaty relating to Mongolia.

At the end of the 1940s, the collectivization of pastoral livestock farms was started again in the Mongolian People's Republic, and by the end of the 1950s, the collectivization of pastoral livestock farms was practically completed. During this post-war period, industry developed in the country, a diversified agriculture was created, and mining expanded. After Kh. Choibalsan's death in 1952, Yu. Tsedenbal, his former deputy and general secretary of the Central Committee of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) from 1940, became the prime minister of the republic.

After in 1956 the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR N.S. Khrushchev condemned gross violations of the law during the period of the Stalinist regime, the party leadership of the MPR followed this example in relation to the past of their own country. However, this event did not lead to the liberalization of Mongolian society. In 1962, the people of Mongolia celebrated the 800th anniversary of the birth of Genghis Khan with great enthusiasm and a sense of national pride. After objections from the Soviet Union, which declared Genghis Khan a reactionary historical figure, all celebrations were stopped and a severe purge of personnel began.

In the 1960s, due to ideological differences and political rivalry, serious tensions arose in Sino-Soviet relations. With their deterioration from Mongolia, which took the side of the USSR in this conflict, 7 thousand Chinese were deported in 1964, working under contracts. During the 1960s and 1970s, Ulaanbaatar repeatedly condemned the PRC. The fact that Inner Mongolia, an autonomous region of China, has a sizable Mongol population only added to the hostility. In the early 1980s, four Soviet divisions were stationed in Mongolia as part of a group of Soviet troops stationed along China's northern border.

From 1952 to 1984, Y. Tsedenbal was in power in the MPR, who combined the posts of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP, Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1952-1974) and Chairman of the Presidium of the Great People's Khural (1974-1984). After he was dismissed, he was replaced by J. Batmunkh in all posts. In 1986-1987, following the Soviet political leader M.S. Gorbachev, Batmunkh began to implement a local version of the policy of glasnost and perestroika. Popular dissatisfaction with the slow pace of reform led to large demonstrations in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989.

A broad public movement for democracy was formed in the country. In early 1990, there were already six opposition political parties that actively called for the implementation of political reforms. The largest of them - the Democratic Union - officially recognized by the government in January 1990, was later renamed the Mongolian Democratic Party. In March 1990, in response to the riots, the entire leadership of the MPRP resigned. The new general secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP, P. Ochirbat, carried out a reorganization in the party. At the same time, some very famous people were expelled from the party (primarily Yu. Tsedenbal).

Then, in March 1990, P. Ochirbat became the head of state. Shortly thereafter, preparations began for elections to the country's highest legislative body. The 1960 constitution was amended to exclude references to the MPRP as the only party and the only guiding force in the political life of Mongolian society. In April, a congress of the MPRP was held, the purpose of which was to reform the party and prepare for participation in the elections; The congress delegates elected G. Ochirbat as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP. Although the MPRP won 357 out of 431 seats in the supreme legislative body in the July 1990 parliamentary elections, all opposition political parties were able to take part in the electoral competition in most regions of Mongolia, thereby violating the MPRP's monopoly on power. In 1992, a new, democratic constitution was adopted, which introduced the post of president of the country. In the same year, P. Ochirbat was elected president (term of office 1992-1997), representing the democratic forces of the country.

In September 1990, a coalition government of D. Byambasuren was formed, which, along with members of the MPRP, included representatives of the opposition - the Mongolian Democratic Party, the Mongolian Social Democratic Party, and the National Progress Party. In June 1992, the MPRP again won the elections: having received 56.9% of the vote, it took 70 out of 76 seats in the State Great Khural. The remaining mandates went to the "Democratic Bloc" (4 seats) as part of the Democratic Party, the Civic Unification Party and the National Progressive Parties (later merged into the National Democratic Party), Social Democrats and Independents (1 seat each). After the elections, the one-party government of the MPRP headed by P. Zhasrai was re-formed. Having proclaimed a "centrist course", it continued to implement the market reforms that had begun, which included the privatization of land and industry.

Political confrontation in the country grew. Opposition parties (PDP, MSDP, Greens and Religious) united in the "Democratic Union" bloc and accused the authorities of the collapse of the economy, thoughtless waste of funds, corruption and ineffective management using "old communist methods". Speaking under the slogan "Man - work - development", they were able to win the parliamentary elections in July 1996, receiving 47.1% of the vote and 50 out of 76 seats in the State Great Khural. The MPRP won this time 40.9% of the vote and 25 seats. The right-wing United Party of National Traditions received 1 mandate. The head of the government was the leader of the PDP M.Ensaikhan. The winning coalition set about forcing reforms. The rapid transformation of a centralized economy into a market economy led to a deterioration in the situation of a significant part of the population and social conflicts. Discontent quickly affected: the presidential elections in May 1997 were unexpectedly won by MPRP candidate N. Bagabandi, who collected about two-thirds of the votes. The new president studied in the USSR, in 1970-1990 he headed one of the departments of the Central Committee of the MPRP. In 1992 he was elected deputy chairman of the Central Committee of the MPRP, in 1996 he headed the parliamentary faction of the party, in 1997 he became chairman of the party.

The former ruling party began to consolidate its positions. Yu.Tsedenbal's membership in the MPRP was posthumously restored, and a conference dedicated to his memory was held. However, disagreements in the government camp were growing. In October 1998, one of the leaders of the democratic movement of 1990 and a contender for the post of head of government, Minister of Infrastructure S. Zorig, was killed. The ruling coalition failed for a long time to appoint a new chairman of the government; 5 candidates for this post failed to succeed. Only in December 1998, the khural approved the mayor of Ulaanbaatar, E. Narantsatsralt, as the head of government, who already resigned in July 1999 and was replaced by the former Minister of Foreign Affairs R. Amarzhargal.

The drought in the summer of 1999 and the unusually cold winter that followed caused a catastrophic drop in agricultural production. Up to 1.7 out of 33.5 million livestock died. At least 35,000 people needed food aid. The growth of foreign investments (in 1999 they increased by 350% compared to 1998 and amounted to 144.8 million US dollars) in the mining of copper and the production of cashmere fiber, as well as textiles, could not mitigate the consequences of structural economic reforms for the population, which were carried out under the patronage International Monetary Fund. A third of the population lived below the subsistence level, with an average per capita income of $40–80 per month, lower than in Russia and China.

Disillusionment with the policy of the ruling coalition led to its heavy defeat in the July 2000 parliamentary elections. The MPRP won 72 out of 76 seats in the State Great Khural and returned to power. The NDP, the Bloc of the Civil Courage Party and the Greens, the Alliance of the Homeland and the independents received 1 place each.

The General Secretary of the MPRP, N. Enkhbayar, who became the head of government after the elections, promised that market reforms would continue, but in a milder version. Enkhbayar is a well-known translator of Russian and Anglo-American literature, in 1992-1996 he served as Minister of Culture, in 1996 he was elected General Secretary of the MPRP. Considers himself an active Buddhist; in the MPRP he is a supporter of the social-democratic image of the party.

The hegemony of the MPRP was strengthened in May 2001, when N. Bagabandi, having received 57.9% of the vote, was re-elected for a second term. The president reaffirmed his commitment to economic reform, human rights and democracy and denied accusations of intent to return to a one-party system. In 1998, Mongolia was visited for the first time since 1990 by the head of a Western European state: it was German President Roman Herzog.

Mongolia in the 21st century.

In 2001, the International Monetary Fund provided a loan of $40 million.

Elections to the Great Khural were held in 2004, but they did not reveal an obvious winner, since the MPRP and the opposition coalition "Motherland - Democracy" received approximately the same number of votes. After lengthy negotiations, the parties came to a compromise, dividing power, and the representative of the opposition, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, became prime minister. He belongs to the so-called. the Young Democrats of the late 1980s and early 1990s.

In 2005, former Prime Minister Nambaryn Enkhbayar was elected President of Mongolia. The President was a symbolic figure. Although he could block the decisions of parliament, which in turn could change the president's decision by a majority vote, it needed a two-thirds majority to do so.

In early 2006, the MPRP withdrew from the government coalition as a sign of disagreement with the ongoing economic course of the country, resulting in the resignation of Elbegdorj. The opposition held protests. More than one and a half thousand demonstrators broke into the building of one of the ruling parties.

On January 25, 2006, the People's Great Khural elected Miegombo Enkhbold, leader of the MPRP, as prime minister by a majority vote. The appointment was also confirmed by the country's President Enkhbayar. Thus, the crisis in Mongolia, which threatened to develop into a revolution, ended. These events have been called the "Yurt Revolution".

At the end of 2007, Enkhbold was expelled from the party and therefore had to resign. In the same year, Sanjiin Bayar, also a member of the MPRP, was elected as the new prime minister. Such frequent changes in government have led to an increased role for the presidency.

Since 2007, Mongolia began to pursue an active foreign policy, in particular, rapprochement with China and Russia began.

In July 2008, the opposition again tried to play the orange scenario. On June 29, 2008 elections to the Great Khural were held. The Democratic Party has declared electoral fraud. Riots began, on July 1, the opposition seized and set fire to the headquarters of the MPRP in the center of Ulaanbaatar. The authorities responded decisively - the police opened fire and used tear gas, as a result of which several people were killed, arrests were made and a state of emergency was declared. The authorities managed to bring the situation under control.

Literature:

Maisky I.M. Mongolia on the eve of the revolution. M., 1960
Dalai Ch. Mongolia in the 13th–14th centuries. M., 1983
History of the Mongolian People's Republic. M., 1983
Skrynnikova T.D. Lamaist Church and State. Outer Mongolia, 16th – early 20th century. Novosibirsk, 1988
Trepavlov V.V. State structure of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. M., 1993
Nadirov Sh.G. Tsedenbal, 1984. M., 1995
Graivoronsky V.V. Modern aratstvo of Mongolia. Social problems of the transition period, 1980–1995. M., 1997
Kulpin E.S. Golden Horde. M., 1998
Walker S.S. Genghis Khan. Rostov-on-Don, 1998
Pershin D.P. Baron Ungern, Urga and Altan-Bulak. Samara, 1999

Ticket number 22. SRV (FER), North Korea and Mongolia after the Second World War

Vietnam

During WWII, Vietnam was occupied by Japanese troops, the patriots fought against Japan and France at the same time. In 1941, the communists formed a national front - the Viet Minh. On August 13, 1945, a decision was made to start a general uprising, the provisional government was headed by Ho Chi Minh. On August 25, with the capture of Saigon, the August Revolution achieved decisive success. September 2 - Declaration of Independence, Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) proclaimed. The tasks were set: to increase production, fight hunger, realize the democratic rights of the people in the form general elections . January 6, 1946 - elections in the national. meeting. November 9 - the first constitution of the DRV - democracy, everyone has rights, equality all around, everything is fine. The dissolution of the Communist Party, which did not mean its temporary going underground. The international background with all this is extremely crappy. As a result of the Potsdam Conference, the United States and Great Britain were supposed to disarm Japanese troops in southern Vietnam, the United States entrusted this mission to Chiang Kai-shek, his troops enter the North. Vietnam and create a threat of revolution, the British contribute to the return of the French expeditionary force, they arrange asta-lavista in Saigon and then try to regain Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Ho Chi Minh made an attempt to enlist the support of the United States, but was sent. It was decided to achieve peace with France, on March 6, 1946, an agreement was signed: Vietnam is free, France has a military presence in the country, a referendum is scheduled in South Vietnam. The French are stirring up a puppet state in Cochin China, putting military pressure on the DRV. New negotiations in Paris continued until December 1946. Already in November, the French contributed to the escalation of the conflict and issued an ultimatum. On December 20, Ho Chi Minh called on the country to resist the invaders. A total guerrilla war begins throughout the country, the French are cut everywhere and ruthlessly. In October 1947 - the battle in Vietbaka, the DRV seizes the initiative. France relies on the ex-emperor Bao Dai and the consolidation of pro-French forces in Vietnam. In the early 50s, relations between the USSR and the PRC were established with the DRV. In September 1950, the counteroffensive of the DRV forces began. In February, the United States and Britain, in response, recognize the government of Bao Dai and provide him with all-round support. 1951 - The Communist Party of Vietnam becomes the Workers' Party of Vietnam. A plan was developed for the speedy defeat of the forces of the DRV with the support of the United States, but failed, in May 1954, during the operation near Dien Bien Phu, the Vietnamese rigidly fry the French, as a result, the issue of peace in Indochina was put on the agenda of the Geneva Conference, on July 21 hostilities were stopped, the French poured water , the border between north and south along the 17th parallel. So, the DRV was recognized as independent, socialism was built there, capitalism was stirred up in the Republic of Vietnam, everything is cool. In 54-55 years. the French are fighting with the amers because of southern Vietnam, guess who sent whom. Right. Since 1955, amers have been sending tons of dough and crowds of advisers to southern Vietnam, eventually planting Ngo Dinh Giep as president, who sabotages the general Vietnamese elections. Since 1959, an anti-government struggle began in the south. In the DRV, meanwhile, they are conducting social. reforms, but the economy is in a deep crisis, at least managed to raise it to the level of 1939, carried out agrarian reform, create a state. sector of the economy, the industry is partially nationalized, active assistance in all this is provided by the DRV, guess who. Right! In 1960, Ho Chi Minh was re-elected president, the guy is going to success, everyone loves him. At the 2nd Congress of the Working People's Party, a course was taken for the unification of the country. In general, Vietnam has really risen over the 10 years of peaceful construction. Meanwhile, in southern Vietnam, the patriots are advancing, in 1960 the Nat is created. front for the liberation of South Vietnam, with him a sickly army. The DRV provides support to the patriots, acts as a single bloc against the amers. In response, the amers stir up the Staley-Taylor plan, which envisaged the creation of strategic villages that would serve as strongholds in the fight against the rebels, as well as guarantors of pro-Western power in the regions. A lot of money was allocated for this, but already in 1962 it became clear that the plan was bullshit. Rebel troops control much of South Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem has completely started to act out of control, puts packs of Buddhists at demonstrations, -1000000 to reputation, staffers decide to remove him, a military coup is organized, power has passed to the generals led by Duong Van Min to bleat. In 1965, the NLF (Southern Patriots) received the support of a number of countries around the world. Amer never liked this; since 1964, ships of the US 7th Fleet have regularly invaded the territory. waters of the DRV, as a result - the Tonkin incident, the Tonkin resolution, the amers are bombing the coast of the DRV. Since February 1965, the blockade of the DRV and the air war against it began, followed by ground operations against the forces of the DRV in South Vietnam (the battle in the Ia Drang valley). The WPV set a course for the speedy transformation of the DRV into an effective military mechanism, everything for the front, everything for victory, from the socialist countries. camp received the most modern weapons and equipment. On March 31, 1968, the United States stopped bombing and expressed its readiness to sit down at the negotiating table. On September 3, 1969, Ho Chi Minh died, and Ton Duc Thang was elected as the new head of state. The process of restoring the DRV is underway. In April-May, the forces of the patriots of South Vietnam go on a new offensive, new territories and large cities pass under their control. The Provisional Revolutionary Government was formed. In 1972 - a new offensive by the NFOYUV, the amers are hammering with aircraft at the northerners, they are not capable of more. Hanoi has been bombed for 12 days, but the DRV persists and everyone sits down at the negotiating table, on January 15, 1973 - a complete cessation of hostilities. On January 27, an agreement was signed in Paris, according to which .. Vietnam won, the Pindos withdraw their troops. The Amer are trying to sabotage the Paris agreement, advisers remain in South Vietnam, it is provided with material support, the forces of the Republic of South Vietnam carry out pacification operations and bomb the zone controlled by the government of the south. Taking advantage of this, the DRV conducts a total mobilization of everyone and everything, in March 1975 a decisive offensive began in the south. On April 30, during the April operation "Ho Chi Minh", Saigon was taken. Hooray, Vietnam has won, everyone is happy, long live a united Vietnam! A new stage in the recent history of Vietnam has opened, full swing construction of social society. Ton Duc Thang - President, the 1959 DRV constitution is in force, Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City, the PTV was renamed the Communist Party of Vietnam, Vietnam was proclaimed a Socialist Republic on July 2, 1976. Vietnam strengthens its position in the international arena - in 1977 it became a member of the UN, in 1978 a member of the CMEA, an agreement was signed with Moscow on friendship and cooperation. Relations with China and Cambodia are not going well. In Cambodia, Pol Pot rages, presents ter. claims, proceeds to a military clash on the border, was rebuffed by Vietnam, which successfully threw off Pol Pot associates and established the People's Republic of Kampuchea in 1979. China has never been interested in strengthening Vietnam, therefore, it has taken a hostile position towards it. The PRC exerts diplomatic pressure on the SRV, conducts active anti-Vietnamese propaganda, organizes an act of aggression, which is carried out on February 17, 1979. For 2 weeks, Chinese troops advanced deep into Vietnam, meeting powerful resistance from the SRV forces. As a result, the USSR demanded that the PRC stop the aggression; on March 5, 1979, Beijing agreed to sit down with Hanoi at the negotiating table. In addition to the border wars, Vietnam experienced the problem of slowing down the pace of economic development due to the slowdown in the process of rebuilding the national economy and industry in peacetime, so damn it. A real crisis was ripening, in connection with which, in August 1979, another plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam was convened. 1980 - Vietnam's new constitution. 80s - comprehensive strengthening of the country's economy, joint projects with the USSR and work at enterprises. In short, the Union invested heavily in Vietnam, but we must pay tribute to those, the opportunities provided were used competently and with maximum benefit. With the beginning of perestroika in socialist countries. bloc reform began in the SRV. The idea of ​​a fucking renovation has been put forward, the essence of which is as follows: an open door policy, admission of foreign capital into the country, encouragement of private initiatives, incl. entrepreneurial, the rejection of the centralization of economic management and nar. hoz., in general, everything is the same as in all social. space. It can be said that Vietnam followed the path of the PRC, having carried out a purge in the party and attestation of party officials who occupied key government officials. posts. The disintegration of the USSR made an enormous impression on Vietnam, just as it did on China. The government of the new Russia had, in fact, nothing to do with foreign policy relations with Vietnam, which led to a reduction in bilateral ties. Vietnam has continued to open its doors to foreign capital, with positive results. In 1992, the new constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was adopted, which, in particular, gave guarantees to foreign investors. Laws on labor and land 93-94. also contributed to the development of Vietnam in the new market conditions. In short, during the 1990s and early 2000s, Vietnam successfully entered the context of a new unipolar world built on market relations, with all the ensuing consequences. Right now, everything seems to be fine.)

Mongolia

On August 9, 1945, Mongolia took part in the USSR's war against Japan, hoping to consolidate its status as an independent state and return Inner Mongolia. October 20 - a referendum in the Mongolian People's Republic, all for independence, China in flight. The Republic of China recognized the independence of the MPR. Further, a series of recognition in the world, the PRC (1949) is also not against the establishment of a diplomatic mission. relations. 1946 - an allied agreement with the USSR. A one-party system is taking shape in the country - power is in the hands of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). 1947 - party plenum, set a five-year development plan, all nishtyak. The entire subsequent history of the national economy of the MPR developed in a similar vein until the 80s, each plenum adopted a five-year plan and drove off. The plans were not fulfilled one hundred percent, but still brought the main benefit - they gradually increased the number of livestock, which is the most important thing for the people. The Great People's Khural (VNKh) - state. legislature, the deputies were supposed to be elected, but in practice they were appointed by the Central Committee of the party, but before that, it seems, no one cared. *after all, the main thing is that there is a yurt and a cattle* At the head of the Council of Ministers is Marshal Choibalsan, a tough dude, a local Stalin. The USSR and China are helping the Mongols build a railway line from Ulaanbaatar to the Soviet and Chinese borders, cheers! Choibalsan died in 1952, and from that moment on, the political climate in the MPR seemed to warm up, although it’s hard for me personally to imagine what kind of political climate it was. At the 2nd five-year plan, a development plan was adopted and the growth rate of industry (!) of the MPR was determined (fucking yourself). In 1956, Mongolia greeted the Union by approving Khrushchev's report at the 20th Congress of the CPSU. But this is not a task, China does not approve at all, 10 thousand whales. workers were blown away by the wind from the industrial (again shock) facilities under construction in the MPR. The Mongolian government quickly realized that it was necessary to strengthen the foundations of socialism in the country and in no way deviate from the Marxist-Leninist doctrine, so as not to anger China. There is a process of cooperation with\x according to three-year plans. During these years, an important event happened in Mongolia - the USSR helped create its own fucking agriculture. Further, the plague in general, since 1960 Mongolia began to cooperate with individual firms in Japan, Great Britain, Austria and other European states. A chamber of commerce and a couple more bodies in charge of foreign trade were created. By the way, since 1958, Tsedenbal, the new chairman of the party's Central Committee, a terribly authoritarian leader, has been in charge of the MPR. July 6, 1960 - new constitution. In general, Mongolia is on the rise, the population is growing, the economy is somehow developing, everything is fine. On October 27, 1961, at the request of the USSR, Mongolia joined the UN, which gave it +1000 protection from the PRC, which left no hope of Mongolia joining. On July 7, 1962, the MPR became a member of the CMEA, which promised it pleasant bonuses and substantial economic assistance. January 15, 1966 - a new treaty of friendship and cooperation with the USSR. In connection with the aggravation of relations between the Union and the PRC, Soviet troops were brought into the territory of the MPR under an agreement. O almighty Tengri, Tsendenbal suddenly began to tighten the screws and tighten the regime, the dissatisfied were subject to repression, not like in the Union in the 30s, but still. The stern Tsedenbal was at the helm until his resignation in 1984, he was replaced by Batmunkha, who took the course of perestroika in words. In the first half of the 60s, the MPR was on the rise, but in the second half it surrenders a little, the number of livestock has decreased, fail. In the 70s, with the active assistance of the USSR and the CMEA, the MPR was again in the black, all sorts of different intergovernmental agreements were signed. In the early 80s, the situation did not change. 1986 - 19th Party Congress, last five-year plan. Then the crisis, because the Union no longer provides the same support. In the late 1980s, in connection with the crisis in the Mongolian People's Republic, the number of opposition movements grew. December 10, 1989 - International Democratic Union. February 18, 1990 - 1st Congress, demands for democratization. All activities are completely peaceful. The MPRP persists, as a result, on March 4, a rally was held in Ulaanbaatar, and on March 9, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the MPRP resigned. Hooray, the peaceful liberal-democratic revolution has taken place, Mongolia has embarked on the path of creating market relations, the political crisis has been overcome. The new general secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP is Ochirbat, a career party reactionary. 1992 - new constitution, all power to the people, implementation through elected institutions. The MPRP becomes a participant in the political struggle on a competitive basis. 94 - 95 years. - Stabilization of the economy, there has been an overall recovery. Since 2000, investments from abroad have been pouring into the Mongolian People's Republic. In the same year - Putin's visit, new prospects for bilateral relations. The MPR becomes a member and participant of various international organizations and forums. Since 1997 - a member of the WTO, since 2000 - a member of the STEC. Now everything is stable in Mongolia, because the main thing for a Mongolian is a yurt and a cattle, the rest will follow)

North Korea

In accordance with the Potsdam agreements (July 1945), a dividing line was established between the Soviet and American zones of the Korean Peninsula along the 38th parallel. In fact, from that moment, the formation of two hostile Korean states in the north and south of the peninsula began. Immediately after the liberation in the north of Korea, local governments began to be created - people's committees, the activities of which were supervised by the Soviet command. The administrative bureau of the 5 provinces coordinated the activities of the committees. The Soviet administration made every effort to force the left out of the committees of the nationalists. In February 1946, with the assistance of the Communist Party, the Provisional People's Committee of the North was created. Korea under the leadership of Kim Il Sung, the leader of one of the partisan detachments vs the Japanese. The left guys are actually in power, a powerful state sector of the economy is being created, industry is being restored and developed, the commies are uniting in the Workers' Party of Korea. August 1946 - the creation of the United Democratic National Front on the initiative of the commies. The intensification of confrontation with the United States prompted the Union to rely on the Communists led by Kim Il Sung and begin building a pro-Soviet regime in the North. Korea. In September 1945, administrative power in the south was concentrated in the hands of General MacArthur. In South Korea, people's committees also began to form, demanding the unification of the country, but the staff members severely suppressed the activity of the leftist movement in the south, blocking its activities. Initially, the USSR advocated the preservation of a united Korea, the United States came up with the initiative of two and then four-sided temporary administrative tutelage. The issue of guardianship deepened the contradictions between the right-wing forces of the south and the left-wing northerners. In 1947, the United States initiated elections in the national. congregation in South Korea. Despite the protests of the leaders of the main political parties in South and North Korea, on May 10, 1948, a separate government of the Republic of Korea was established in the south, headed by Syngman Rhee. The political communities of the north and south did not recognize the southern government; on August 25, 1948, they formed the Supreme People's Assembly, at the first session of which the creation of the DPRK was proclaimed. Kim Il Sung became Prime Minister. The Soviet Union was the first to recognize and establish a dip. relations with North Korea. So Korea split, which further aggravated the confrontation and ultimately led to an armed clash. The war of 1950 - 1953 left the Korean Peninsula divided into 2 parts hostile to each other. After the war, the DPRK began to restore the national economy. A three-year economic development plan was adopted with the support of the USSR and the PRC. Then a five-year development plan was developed. In 1958, the cooperation with the agricultural sector was completed. Kim Il Sung decided to continue to travel on gratuitous investments. The official ideology of the party - Juche (independence) was adopted, at the same time a course of self-reliance (charek kansen) was proclaimed. In the mid-50s, the struggle for power intensified in the DPRK, someone dared to speak out against the cultivation of Kim's personality! Kim was supported by the majority and the army, which, as it were, was a key success factor. The busils were repressed. In 1962, Khrushchev showed Kim the fig and did not give the dough, for which Kim slowly curtails ties with the USSR. New five-year plans, now it is really necessary to rely on our own forces, although assistance is still coming from China. In the 70s, the son of Kim Il Sung, his official successor Kim Chang Il, was nominated. 1972 - new constitution. Introduced the post of President of the DPRK. The new seven-year plan 78 - 84 was not implemented, extended for 2 years, an attempt at reform. In 1980, a program was put forward to achieve ten economic heights in the next seven-year plan. But fail, complete stagnation. Kim Jr. also failed to stop the pace of the economic downturn. The command-administrative system of managing did not work well. In 1994, Kim Il Sung died, Kim Chang Il alone was at the helm, the DPRK is trying to survive, trying to attract foreign capital, but not very successfully. With the collapse of the USSR and the social. camp Kim generally allegedly sat down on treason. In the late 90s, there was famine in North Korea, there was not enough raw materials, energy, food, a complete ass. Only the army and the military-industrial complex live well, 50% of the budget goes there, which is not surprising, the army is the main and only support of the regime. International humanitarian supplies helped to survive, but the problems are not solved. In the 90s - early 2000s, the situation on the Korean Peninsula escalated due to the launch of the DPRK nuclear program. In 1994, after negotiations, an agreement was signed with the United States, according to which the DPRK curtailed nuclear development, and the United States and the South Caucasus pledged to supply and install light water reactors for nuclear power plants in the North. In the DPRK, developments were also carried out in the field of the rocket industry, chemical. weapons and all sorts of other bad deeds that caused a sharply negative reaction from the world community (USA). With all this, Korea in the 90s actively expanded its international contacts by establishing a diplomatic mission. relations with many countries of the world, in 1991 even became a member of the UN. An important donor Sev. Korea remains China, without China it would be tight. In 2000, Putin visited the DPRK, which announced the normalization of relations between the new Russia and the DPRK, and an agreement on friendship and good neighborliness was signed. In the last 10 years, as we know, the DPRK continues to bend its internal political line, periodically turn out to * be on its southern neighbors and envy their successes. This will probably continue until China stops giving lavash.)