Art as a universal way of communication ART IS A CONDUCTOR OF SPIRITUAL ENERGY The special power of art lies not only in the fact that it conveys information to us, but also in what may be even more important: it is a conductor of spiritual energy. Art has a beneficial effect on human emotions: it inspires, inspires hope, and makes one empathize. Victor Popkov “Father’s Overcoat” A peculiar self-portrait of the artist. In the painting, the artist depicted himself in an old overcoat left over from his father who died in the war. In the background, the ethereal shadows of widows, painted in a mournful crimson color, hover. The canvas conveys the artist’s personal experiences, but it also restores the spiritual kinship of generations, the continuity of heroic traditions, and pays grateful tribute to the military past. The overcoat itself is a symbol of all those mourning those killed in the war. Vasily Surikov “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, 1881 Surikov did not show the execution itself, since he did not want to shock the viewer, but wanted to talk about the tragic fate of the people at the moment of historical turning point. The artist focused on the mental state of the condemned and what each of them experiences in the last minutes of their lives. consciousness and your feelings. There are two main characters in the picture - young Peter, sitting on a horse near the Kremlin walls, and a red-haired archer, angrily looking at the king. This frantic man represents the emotional center of the composition. His hands are tied, his feet are put in stocks, but he has not resigned himself to his fate. In his hands he clutches a candle with a flickering tongue of flame. Peter looks at the archers with an equally angry and irreconcilable gaze. He is full of consciousness that he is right. A diagonal line can be drawn between the figures of Sagittarius and Peter, which visually demonstrates the confrontation between these characters. The audience empathizes with the archers, imbued with their state of mind. After all, each of them experiences the last minutes of life in their own way: some - in a state of fear and despair, others - in powerless anger, defiance of fate, others in tears and prayers. ART AS A UNIVERSAL WAY OF COMMUNICATION SIGNS AND SYMBOLS OF ART Since primitive times, various types of images (sculptural, painting, graphic) were sign and symbolic codes that were used by ancient people to carry out rituals, preserve and transmit information. Any significant sound, gesture, thing, event can be either a sign or a symbol. SIGN AND SYMBOL How do you understand these terms? In what expressions do we use these words? What is the difference between a sign and a symbol? Signs are generally accepted symbols for objects, phenomena, and actions. Examples of signs include road signs or symbols on geographical maps, sound signals - SOS or an ambulance siren, a variety of gestures, etc. A sign is understood in the same way by everyone. A symbol is an object, action, etc., revealing some image, concept, idea. The symbol embodies experiences and ideas common to people. A symbol is a synthesis of a sign and an image. A symbol, like a riddle, has many meanings; its meanings can be revealed indefinitely. Understanding a symbol depends on a person’s erudition and intuition. A symbol can be designated by a number, property, or shape. For example, the number 7 is a symbol of perfection and completeness (seven days in each phase of the moon, seven colors of the rainbow, seven notes, seven days of the week, seven virtues, seven deadly sins, seven sacraments. Seven deadly sins that can destroy the soul: anger, pride, voluptuousness (lust), laziness, gluttony, avarice (greed) and envy. Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1460 -1516) The Seven Deadly Sins There were eras in history when people especially often turned to symbols in art. In the Middle Ages, human aspiration was of particular interest to God. Therefore, the things that surrounded a person interested the artist only to the extent that they were connected with the meaning of Holy Scripture. Many medieval paintings depict a cup, grapes (wine) and bread - symbols of the sacrament of communion; lily or iris flowers - a symbol Mother of God Simon Ushakov icon “The Last Supper” S. Botticelli “The Annunciation” The choice of color and color is also symbolic: red-brown was a symbol of everything earthly (clay, earth); red is the color of shed sacrificial blood, the fire of faith; blue or blue symbolized everything heavenly and holy; green is the color of hope, the color of life, a symbol of consolation, rebirth to a new life. Trinity. Andrey Rublev. Since the 15th century The things depicted in the picture are simultaneously endowed with a double meaning - religious and everyday. The traditional divine symbolism of the Middle Ages continues in the religious. Adrian van Utrecht. Still life with a bouquet and a skull. Carlo Crivelli “Madonna” In everyday life the usual significance of a thing is manifested in Everyday life person. Many works of the 17th century. are symbolic in nature, which is often conveyed by the objects presented in them: glasses of wine, bread, fish, withered flowers, watches, etc. Peter Klas. Still life with crab Simon-Renard de Saint-André. Still life vanitas (vanitas - vanity of vanities), reminding a person of the frailty of his existence. Still life vanitas (vanitas) These still lifes depict: skulls, candles, flowers, clocks, sheets of music and musical instruments (the sound has sounded, which means it has died) Jurian van Streck. Vanity of vanities The very name of the picture speaks of the frailty of earthly vanity - the pursuit of wealth, power, pleasure. In still life, the artist conveys the value of everyday life, the significance of simple things. His attitude towards the world. The plumed helmet, hunting horn and sword symbolize military valor and earthly entertainment. A skull entwined with an ear of corn and a drawing depicting a boy’s head signify youth, death and future resurrection. The publication of Sophocles' Electra in the Dutch translation of the poet Joost van Vondel hints at the immortality of art in the face of the frailty of earthly glory. . The skull is a reminder of the inevitability of death. . Bubble- shortness of life and suddenness of death; a reference to the expression homo bulla - “man is a soap bubble.” . Cups, playing cards or dice, chess (rarely) - a sign of an erroneous life goal, a search for pleasure and a sinful life. . Sand and mechanical watches- the transience of time. . Musical instruments, notes - the brevity and ephemeral nature of life, a symbol of the arts. . Weapons and armor are a symbol of power and might, a designation of what cannot be taken with you to the grave. . Crowns and papal tiaras, scepters and orbs, wreaths of leaves are signs of transient earthly domination, which is opposed to the heavenly world order. . Rotten fruits are a symbol of aging. Ripe fruits symbolize fertility, abundance, figuratively wealth and prosperity. . Smoking pipe- a symbol of fleeting and elusive earthly pleasures. . Books and maps (mappa mundi), the writing pen is a symbol of science. . Globe, both the earth and the starry sky. . Portraits, anatomical drawings, letters symbolize human relationships.
Andrey Baturin, October 24, 2018WebEvolution studio develops logos according to 3 tariff plans: “Express”, “Standard”, “Trademark”. They have features and differences. You can read more about this at. But now let’s talk about the difference between a logo and a trademark, why we have allocated such a tariff, and how registering a brand name is beneficial to the owner.
Logo
- a memorable graphic symbol of the company, which is one of the main components of the corporate identity. It can be an outline of the company name, an image, an abstract emblem symbol. This definition follows from practice; the legislation does not contain an exact meaning.Trademark
- a designation used to individualize goods of legal entities or individual entrepreneurs. A certificate is issued for it, and the owner is recognized as having an exclusive right. This concept and norm are enshrined in Art. 1477 Civil Code.The same article of the Civil Code in part 2 indicates another term. We are talking about a service mark, a way to individualize work or service.
So what is the difference between a logo and a trademark? In fact, it turns out that a trademark is used to distinguish a product, and a service mark is used for services or works. A logo can be ordered by any company that produces or sells goods, provides services, performs services, or performs work.
This is a clear but simplified formulation. The differences between the concepts are deeper, and they are contained mainly within the boundaries of the legal field.
What is the difference between a trademark and a logo?
In Russian laws that regulate copyright, the term “logo” is absent. There is no legal procedure such as logo registration. But there is and is regulated in detail the registration of a trademark. Why did this happen?
Intellectual property is subject to government protection. Not everyone receives it, but only those who in the prescribed manner applied for a sign. He can be:
- Verbal.
- Graphic.
- Verbal and graphic.
The accounting of “recorded” symbols is carried out by sphere. The ICGS distributes activities into classes. When a company selling washing powder wants to register the name of its product, for example, “Chistin”, it will no longer be able to be registered by another organization dealing household chemicals. But if the company makes money from something else, for example, provides cleaning services, then it can use the same name.
Simply put, a logo is an unregistered trademark. It is rarely subject to legal protection. Accordingly, a trademark is, among other things, a registered logo.
Not all logo owners agree to this legal operation. Although after it, no one else is guaranteed to be able to use the trademark. More precisely, it can, but with the risk of being severely punished for the discovery of unlawful use. Fines for this reach up to 5 million rubles.
The difficulty is that the procedure for registering a trademark:
- Not easy.
- Long lasting.
- Not free, but quite expensive.
Therefore, many people prefer to limit themselves to a logo. It cannot be said that it is not protected in any way by intellectual property law. There are times when a company and its symbol are so well known that everyone understands whose logo it is. A striking example is Russian Railways. Well-known brand emblems cannot be used by any other entities, even if they operate in a different field.
The logo must be unique! As well as other business attributes: names, slogans, website domain names. In order not to accidentally violate anyone's rights, it is necessary to check for the identity of the symbols. It, of course, cannot be compared with examination by patent attorneys, but it will give its results. There are many online services for searching for symbols.
How is a trademark registered?
Services help you find an exact copy of a symbol. Then it becomes clear that it cannot be used. But there is such a thing as confusingly similar. In other words, the logo does not repeat its “colleague” exactly, but uses a similar font, image, and color scheme.
When registering trademarks, Rospatent checks such similarity and will not issue a certificate for a mark that is similar to the registered one. Refusal can come suddenly. You really may not know that someone has already developed and designed similar symbolism. In case of refusal, the paid state fee will not be returned!
To avoid getting into such a situation, you can use the services of specialized organizations. Patent offices will check and search, including for the presence of similar logos.
And now attention: important information! , which we offer to clients, includes a preliminary inspection. This is handled by a patent attorney who cooperates with us on an ongoing basis. Details are below.
The registration process is lengthy, taking from ten months to one and a half years. There is a plus - from the moment the application is submitted until the certificate is issued, the owner receives priority right to use the designation. A trademark certificate is issued for 10 years, then it needs to be renewed, which will also take long time- about a year.
But as a result of registration, you receive full rights to your branding and can:
- Defend violated interests in court and demand compensation!
- Sell rights to use the mark to interested parties.
- Organize a franchise and make a profit from it.
- Develop and promote your brand without the risk that competitors may steal your logo.
Logo development according to the “Trademark” tariff
- Development begins with filling out the brief. When it is ready, the task is formed and we sign the contract.
- The first step is to choose a logo concept together. Having decided on it, we work with the form, then select the font and color. There are no restrictions on the number of edits!
- Next, a search for similar trademarks is carried out.
- In five working days, we prepare at least three ideas for logo development and demonstrate to you. Your comments will help us move in the right direction.
- Step by step, we work through the idea and get feedback, we are finalizing the logo until you approve it. And then the search starts again for the presence of similar signs.
Development is carried out at a high level professional level. All your ideas are implemented, and your wishes are taken into account.
Please note that preparation of documents and fees to Rospatent are paid separately!
This tariff has an obvious advantage: you get a trademark. At the same time, the likelihood of Rospatent’s refusal to register it is minimized. A patent attorney can help you further when communicating with the authorities. Take the first step in this direction - call us!
Signs are generally accepted symbols objects, phenomena, actions. Examples of signs include road signs or symbols on geographical maps, sound signals - SOS or an ambulance siren, a variety of gestures, etc.
A symbol is an object, action, etc., revealing an image, concept, idea. The symbol embodies experiences and ideas common to people. A symbol is a synthesis of a sign and an image.
Since primitive times, various types of images (sculptural, pictorial, graphic) were sign and symbolic codes that were used by ancient people to carry out rituals, preserve and transmit information. Any significant sound, gesture, thing, event can be either a sign or a symbol.
Art speaks to people in the language of symbols. A symbol in art is an artistic image that embodies an idea. A symbol, like a riddle, has multiple meanings; its meanings can be revealed indefinitely, unlike a sign, which is understood by everyone in the same way. The depth of understanding of a symbol depends on a person’s ability to interpret, on his erudition and intuition.
Musical art speaks to us in the language of sounds and is filled with secrets. With amazing variety and depth, through a system of signs and symbols, music expresses the richest world of human feelings. Even a single sound, taking into account all its aspects - height, duration, timbre, volume - is a sign-intonation. It can indicate timidity or confidence, constraint or freedom, tenderness or rudeness.
We can also talk about plastic signs that reproduce a gesture or movement. There is always a desire to create in the human character - the need to explore, invent, build, solve complex, intricate problems. One of these problems was the scientific idea of creating a perpetual motion machine (perpetuum mobile). His invention would have a huge impact on the development of the world economy. And only music, as a temporary art, can embody the image of “perpetual motion”. Its symbol was the instrumental pieces “Perpetuum mobile” (“Perpetual Motion”) by various composers: N. Paganini, F. Mendelssohn, N. Rimsky-Korsakov and others.
A musical sign that becomes a symbol can be called the motif of fate - the grain-intonation from which the entire Symphony No. 5 of L. Beethoven grows. And there are many such examples in musical art.
National anthems are musical symbols that embody the unity of the people, their culture, and pride in their country. There have been eras in history when people especially often turned to symbols in art. An example is medieval Christian art. In the Middle Ages, man's aspiration to God was of particular interest. Therefore, the things that surrounded a person interested the artist only to the extent that they were connected with the meaning of the Holy Scriptures. Many medieval paintings depict a cup, grapes (wine) and bread - symbols of the sacrament of communion; Lily or iris flowers are a symbol of the Mother of God.
The choice of coloring and color is also symbolic: red-brown was a symbol of everything earthly (clay, earth); red is the color of shed sacrificial blood, the fire of faith; blue or blue symbolized everything heavenly and holy; and green is the color of hope, the color of life, a symbol of consolation, rebirth to a new life.
Since the 15th century The things depicted in the picture are simultaneously endowed with a double meaning - religious and everyday. In the religious, the traditional divine symbolism of the Middle Ages is continued; in the everyday, the usual significance of a thing in a person’s everyday life is manifested.
Many works of the 17th century. are symbolic in nature, which is often conveyed by the objects presented in them: glasses of wine, bread, fish, withered flowers, watches, etc. Sometimes ordinary objects, unusually combined in one composition, represent figurative codes that are difficult to unravel. This is especially characteristic of the widespread in the 17th century. a still life called vanitas (vanitas - vanity of vanities) and reminding a person of the frailty of his existence. They depict skulls, candles, flowers, clocks, sheets of music and musical instruments (the sound has died, which means it has died), which are perceived as encrypted messages. Artists working in vanitas themes spoke about the futility of earthly existence, about the transience of existence. The very title of the painting “Vanity of Vanities” speaks of the frailty of earthly vanity - the pursuit of wealth, power, pleasure.
In still life, the artist conveys the value of everyday life, the significance of simple things. His attitude to the world is different in that he sees and feels obvious or hidden life, which is diffused in everything that exists, in nature, in matter itself. Therefore, another name for still life is stillleben (Dutch stillleven, German stilleben, English still life) - quiet (silent) life.
For an artist there are no “voiceless things”; for him everything is “expressive and speaking being” (M. Bakhtin).
Portraits, landscapes, still lifes, genre scenes of Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) reflect his rebellious, lonely soul, independent of canons and norms. His works are permeated with a sense of acute anxiety and confusion. Difficult inner world the artist is often revealed through symbols. Van Gogh sought to reflect the content with the help of expressive, psychologically rich colors.
“I tried to express the terrible passions of man in red and green,” said the artist. The emotional intensity was intensified many times over thanks to the technique used by the master of applying paint with small dashed lines and the wave-like rhythm of their movement.
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) also used symbolism in his works. The characters in his still lifes were often musical instruments. Perhaps this is due to the sophistication of their forms, or perhaps to the desire to synthesize painting and music.
Culture, starting with organization, with order, with ritual, structures the world around a person in certain forms. These forms are symbolic in nature. When it comes to symbols and signs, the question always arises: a sign of what? symbol - what? This question means that the meaning of these concepts can only be revealed by analyzing their relationship to something third, to the original, which may not have (and most often does not have) anything in common in terms of physical, chemical and other properties with the carrier of reflection. But everyone is in some connection, being the result of human knowledge, putting this result in certain forms. The concepts of “sign” and “symbol” are often used in the same semantic context, but this is not always justified. Let us consider the specifics of their origin and functioning.
Sometimes you can come across the statement that signs are what distinguishes man from the animal world. The definition of a sign as a watershed between animal and human behavior is the result of a confusion between the concepts of sign and symbol. However, there is reason to believe that proto-languages arose from sign systems formed in the animal world. The researchers say these systems can be quite differentiated. For example, dominant males in a school of vervet monkeys can produce six different danger calls. Some of these signals mean “just” danger, some mean specific “types” of danger (“man” or “snake”, “danger from above”, “leopard”, “danger from below”).
The line between culture and nature is generally not as obvious as those who absolutize the shortest definition of culture believe: “culture is everything that is not nature.” C. Lévi-Strauss, who conducted field research in the tropical jungle of Central Brazil among tribes, where the layer of culture is still very thin and one can trace the connection between man and nature, when the signifier has not yet completely separated from the signified, concluded that the taboo on incest turned out to be that border , after which nature passed into culture. However, the German ethnologist Bischof proved that the same taboo exists in gray geese and that a similar behavioral model is most likely due to hormonal processes.
Based on this kind of research, we believe that human culture begins where and when the ability of consciousness to symbolize appears. Signs and symbols, wrote E. Cassirer, “belong to two different discursive universes: signal [E. Cassirer uses this term as a synonym for sign. – N.B. ] is part of the physical world of existence, while the symbol represents part of the human world of meaning. Signals are “operators”, symbols are “designators”... A symbol is not only universal, but also extremely changeable... A sign or signal is related to the thing to which it refers in a fixed, unique way.”
So, sign is a material object (phenomenon, event) that acts as an objective substitute for some other object, property or relationship and is used for acquiring, storing, processing and transmitting messages (information, knowledge). This is a materialized carrier of the image of an object, limited by it functional purpose. The presence of a sign makes it possible to transmit information through technical communication channels and its various – mathematical, statistical, logical – processing.
Symbol is one of the most ambiguous concepts. They believe that in a word simbolon called half a shard, given to the guest and served as proof of his identity during subsequent visits to the house. Symbol in culture it is a universal, multi-valued category, revealed through a comparison of the objective image and the deep meaning. Turning into a symbol, the image becomes “transparent”; the meaning seems to shine through it.
The aesthetic information carried by a symbol has a huge number of degrees of freedom, far exceeding the capabilities of human perception. “I call any structure of meaning a symbol,” wrote P. Ricoeur, “where there is a direct, primary, literal meaning means at the same time another, indirect, secondary, allegorical meaning, which can only be understood through the first. This circle of expressions with a double meaning constitutes the hermeneutic field itself."
In table 6.1 an attempt is made to systematize information about the sign and symbol. It also includes information about such an important category of language as metaphor.
Table c. 1
Comparative characteristics of the categories "sign", "symbol", "metaphor"
|
Criteria |
Metaphor |
||
|
Origin |
From the animal world |
Arises with the development of the psyche, when the division into reason and feeling is realized, the real world and its reflection in artificial forms are distinguished |
It arises spontaneously in the process of artistic exploration of the world as a consequence of the intuitive feeling of the similarity of matter and spirit (water flows, time flows), areas perceived by different senses (solid metal and solid sound) |
|
Place of stay |
It occurs in the animal world, in various spheres of social life: science, religion, art, communications, etc. |
Culture as a whole is at the stage when its unity is formed through the forms of art, science, and religion. Happens in personal life, in society, state, ethnic, etc. community |
Artistic, everyday and scientific speech (except for business discourse, where accuracy and unambiguity are required). Does not belong to any personal or social sphere |
|
Purpose of application |
Information, communication |
Representation of objects, events or ideas |
Co-nationalization of meaning |
|
And the Negru mentality and targeting, the desire for classification, the direct connection between the sign and the signified |
It designates not oneself, but something else, opens access to consciousness, expresses general ideas, is extralinguistic, imperative. Has a generalized form. Easily overcomes “earthly gravity”, trying to designate the eternal and elusive, takes us beyond the limits of reality. Decomposes an image into symbolic elements, turning it into “text” |
Verbal structure, seme! accuracy, does not strive for classification. Image-individuation. Bet on value. Used within meanings directly or indirectly related to reality, and thus deepens the understanding of reality. Maintains image integrity |
|
|
Archetypal meanings: based on the unchanging properties of nature and man |
|||
|
They gravitate towards a graphic image, stabilize the shape |
|||
A person’s daily life is filled with symbols and signs that regulate his behavior, allowing or prohibiting something, personifying and filling with meaning. In symbols and signs, both the external “I” of a person (self) and the internal “I” (I), the unconscious, given to him by nature, are manifested. C. Lévi-Strauss claimed that he had found the way from symbols and signs to the unconscious structure of the mind, and therefore to the structure of the Universe.
The unity of man and the universe is one of the most ancient and mysterious themes in culture. In legends, people are stars, the spirality of celestial nebulae is repeated many times in the ornaments of all earthly cultures, red blood owes its color to iron, and all the iron that is on earth, according to astronomers, arose in stellar matter. Or take the spiral structure of many areas of the human body: the auricle, the iris of the eye... It was this sense of unity that allowed the mathematician and poet V. Khlebnikov to create his own model of a metalanguage consisting of seven layers.
Approaching the riddle, however, only increases its mystery. But this feeling of mystery is “the most beautiful and profound experience that befalls man,” as A. Einstein argued, “and lies at the basis of religion and all the most profound tendencies in art and science. Anyone who has not experienced this feeling seems to me if not dead, then at least blind"
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
FSBEI "Buryat State University"
Faculty of Foreign Languages
Department of Translation and Intercultural Communication
Ivankina Elena Olegovna
Differences between the concepts of “symbol” and “sign”
/abstract/
Checked:
Kalenykh E.V.
Ulan-Ude, 2013
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. Difference between a symbol and a sign 4
- Definition of the concept “sign”, its main
characteristics, classification of signs 4
- Symbol as a type of sign, difference between a sign
from symbol 9
Conclusion 13 List of sources and literature used 14
Introduction
The relevance of this work is explained by the personal interest of its authors in the problem of distinguishing between the concepts of “sign” and “symbol”, since symbols in a poetic work are the subject of the authors’ research.
The subject of this work is the difference between a symbol and other types of signs.
The purpose of this work is to identify the differences between the symbol and other signs. In accordance with this goal, we set the following tasks:
- study theoretical material concerning the concepts of “sign” and “symbol”,
- consider the main characteristics of the concepts “sign” and “symbol”, identify the differences between a symbol and a sign in general.
When writing this work, we used the works of such researchers as S.S. Averintsev, V.I. Ivanov, A.F. Losev et al.
The work consists of an introduction, one chapter including two paragraphs, and a conclusion.
The introduction substantiates the relevance of the topic of the abstract, defines the goals and objectives of the work, the materials used, and indicates the structure of the abstract.
The first paragraph reveals the concept of a sign and provides a classification of signs.
The second paragraph gives the concept of a symbol, its main characteristics from the point of view of different authors, such as S.S. Averintsev, Y. Lotman, A. Losev, M. Girshman, V. Ivanov, and also discusses the differences between the concepts of “sign” and “symbol”.
In conclusion, generalized conclusions are given regarding the differences between the concepts of “sign” and “symbol”.
The list of used literature contains sources.
Chapter 1. Difference between a symbol and a sign
1.1. Definition of the concept of “sign”, its main characteristics, classification of signs
The concept of a sign is studied not only in linguistics, but also in all other fields of science.
Any object, its property or sign can be a sign of something, so there can be an infinite number of signs, and they can be so different from each other that it is impossible to combine them into one general classification, no matter how detailed it is.
The definition of a sign as part of a message can be represented as follows: the addressee is presented not with the object of the message itself, but with a certain representative that allows him to recognize this object. Such a representative of the object will be a sign. At the same time, Yu.S. Maslov notes the difference between a syndrome, which the recipient can interpret in his own way, and a sign that is given to the recipient deliberately, in order to convey any specific information.
Thus, we can say that any systems of means used by a person for the purpose of exchanging any information are sign or semiotic systems, and they are subject to certain rules.
The addressee must understand the sign he is using, and the sign must be perceived in some way, that is, it must be a material object. The meaning acquired by a sign under certain conditions can be either a real object, phenomenon, or a fictitious thing, an abstract concept.
F. de Saussure in his works calls a sign not only the “signifier”, but also the “signified”, speaking about the two-sided essence of the sign. In this case, the “signifier” will be the form or “plane of expression”, and the “signified” will be the “plane of content”, content, meaning and meaning. Signs include words, awards, road signs, money, signals, gestures, etc.
The structure of a sign is closely related to such concepts as denotation and concept. Denotation is a plan of content, a set of all objects designated by a sign. As for the concept or expression plan, it represents a set of information about the object denoted by a certain sign and its connections with other objects. This is both the information that the sign carries and the body of knowledge about the object and phenomenon designated by the sign.
Usually one sign corresponds to one meaning, and one meaning corresponds to one denotation. However, there are signs that are the same in shape, but denote different objects or phenomena. This phenomenon is called “homonymy” - the coincidence of signs denoting different entities. Along with homonymy, there is also synonymy of signs - a phenomenon in which, on the contrary, several signs correspond to one denotation. These phenomena are characteristic not only of natural languages, but also of any other sign systems.
According to A.A. Reformatsky, if we compare a sign and a thing, a sign has the following characteristics:
- the sign must be material, that is, like any thing, it must be accessible to sensory perception;
- the sign has no meaning, but it is aimed at meaning, which is why it exists, therefore the sign belongs to the second signaling system;
- unlike the content of a thing, the content of a sign does not coincide with its material characteristics;
- the content of a sign is determined by its distinctive features, identified and separated analytically from non-distinctive ones;
- a sign and its content are determined by the place and role of a given sign in a given system of a similar order of signs.
In addition, the sign has certain properties. These include:
- intentionality: a sign is purposefully used to convey a certain meaning;
- two-sidedness - the presence of an ideal side - meaning, meaning - and a material side - a form perceived by any sense organs;
- conventionality: the basis for naming different objects with different words, for example, is a certain agreement;
- conditionality: a sign does not exist in isolation, it is part of its sign system.
As for the large number of classifications of signs based on differences in form, content, connection between form and content and other parameters, the classification based on the typology of the relationship between form and content by Charles Sanders Peirce, who divides signs into three groups: icons, indices and symbols.
Any sign, according to C. Pierce, has the following main characteristics:
- material shell;
- designated object;
- human-made rules of interpretation.
Thus, icons (or iconic signs) are signs whose form and content are similar qualitatively or structurally, that is, the plane of expression is similar to the plane of content. For example, a picture depicting a battle or a battle plan are icon signs if their content is considered to be the battle itself. It can also be portraits, photographs.
Indices (or indexical signs) are signs whose form and content are relatively similar, that is, adjacent in space or time. Examples of indices include road signs, as well as smoke, indicating the presence of fire, symptoms of some disease, suggesting the presence of fire. disease. In this case, it is more correct to talk about the presence of certain cause-and-effect relationships between the sign and the designated object. In addition, indexical linguistic signs traditionally include personal and demonstrative pronouns and some other pronominal words (I, you, this, here, now, etc.).
Symbols (or symbolic, conventional, conventional signs) are signs for which the connection between form and content is established arbitrarily, according to an agreement relating specifically to a given sign, that is, the plane of expression has nothing to do with the plane of content.
As for iconic and indexical signs, here the form of the sign allows even the addressee who is not familiar with it to guess its content. The form of symbolic signs in itself does not give any idea of the content. In such cases, according to F. de Saussure, we are talking about the unmotivated choice of the signifier or the absence of a natural connection between the signified and the signifier. For example, the subtraction sign “-” is in no way connected with the arithmetic operation itself: neither similarity, nor contiguity, nor cause-and-effect relationships. Their connection is arbitrary, that is, determined by a special agreement that stipulates the use of the corresponding symbol to convey a given meaning. Most linguistic signs refer specifically to symbols, allowing us to talk about the arbitrariness of a linguistic sign. For example, there is nothing in common between the English word “glasses”, the French “lunettes” and the Russian “glasses”, but they all mean the same object.
It is worth considering that the arbitrariness of a symbol does not mean freedom to choose the form of the sign, since within the framework of one sign system this choice is limited: for example, in English the corresponding meaning is expressed only by the word “glasses”, the very connection between the signified and the signifier, established and defined, is arbitrary language convention, and not some natural reasons.
However, languages also have words whose content is similar to their form. Such words are iconic signs. These words are onomatopoeias, or ideophones: “meow-meow”, “br-r-r”, “apchhi”, “cock-a-doodle-doo”, “splash”, etc. An iconic sign can be more than just one word . So, according to R.O. Jacobson, the order of words in the phrase “I came, I saw, I conquered” is iconic, since the order of words repeats the sequence of the designated actions.
1. 2. Symbol as a type of sign, the difference between a sign and a symbol.
Being a type of sign, a symbol, of course, has almost the same characteristics and properties as other types of signs. However, the symbol also has significant differences from them.
The etymology of this word dates back to the times of Ancient Greece: the word “symbol” comes from the Greek σύμβολα, (from the Greek “sign, identifying mark”), which meant halves of one plate that fit each other along the break line. By adding these halves, people connected by a union of hereditary friendship identified each other. According to S.S. Averintsev, unlike an allegory, which anyone can recognize, a symbol can only be deciphered by “initiates.” Thus, the symbol not only unites the object and the meaning, but also the people who understand this meaning. This is the meaning of a symbol as a central concept of culture and a sign of cultural identity, since a set of symbols expresses a set of views on the surrounding reality and its conceptualization.
A symbol contains many shades of meaning, and, unlike, for example, an image expressing a single phenomenon, it has a number of meanings, sometimes multidirectional and opposite, but at the same time being a single whole. The poet and theorist of symbolism V. Ivanov believed that a symbol signifies not one, but different entities, A. Bely defined a symbol as “the connection of heterogeneous things together.” This is, according to S.S. Averintsev, the difference between a symbol and a sign: if for a sign system polysemy is an obstacle to the rational functioning of a sign, then in the case of a symbol, polysemy determines its content. The multi-layered nature of the symbol is designed for the active work of the perceiver. The meaning in a symbol does not appear as a given, it is given, that is, the meaning cannot be reduced to a certain logical formula, it can be explained with the help of further symbolic connections, clarifying its rational clarity, but at the same time in its interpretation it is impossible to come to pure concepts. According to S.S. Averintsev, a symbol is “an image taken in the aspect of its iconicity and it is a sign endowed with all the organic nature of myth and the inexhaustible ambiguity of the image.”
A.F. Losev connected the symbol with reality as follows:
1. A symbol is a function of reality, which can be decomposed into an infinite series of members, spaced at various distances from each other and capable of entering into infinitely diverse structural associations.
2. A symbol is the meaning of reality, a reflection that reveals the meaning of what is reflected, and this reflection in consciousness is quite specific and cannot be reduced to what is reflected. But thanks to this property, the reflecting not only does not break with the reflected, but, on the contrary, allows you to penetrate deeper into the reflected, which is not accessible to its external sensory reproduction.
3. A symbol is an interpretation of reality, its specific processing, that is, with one or another understanding of reality.
4. A symbol is a signification of reality: it must denote reality, that is, in some way be reflected back into reality.
The concept of symbol is of great importance in aesthetics. A symbol has the property of evoking many ideas with an ordinary sign, without passing, like an allegory, into the realm of the abstract, it acts on consciousness, on feelings, that is, it affects aesthetically. Therefore, the rich symbols of life are not simply adopted by art and, in particular, poetry, but also expanded even further. A symbol is a further reinforcement of an image or metaphor; it does not simply replace one representation with another, homogeneous representation, but gives a representation with richer content than the original.
