Target: familiarizing students with the various meanings and aspects of the concept of “freedom”; analysis of some philosophical, socio-political, moral and ethical problems that have not only a socio-philosophical, but also a deeply personal meaning; identifying different approaches to solving these problems.
Equipment: § 20 (Bogolyubov L.N. Man and Society. Social Science. Part 1); fragments from the works of philosophers (didactic materials).
Lesson plan:
1. The concept of “freedom”.
2. Why can’t there be absolute freedom?
3. Boundaries of freedom: a) “external” necessity and its various manifestations;
b) “internal” regulators of freedom.
On the desk: Free institutions are good when they are among people who respect themselves, and therefore respect their duty, the duty of a citizen (F.M. Dostoevsky). Freedom is the right to do everything that is permitted by law (Charles Montesquieu). Freedom does not lie in not restraining oneself, but in controlling oneself (F.M. Dostoevsky).
It is human nature to strive for freedom. This is a natural desire for independence, independence, readiness to be responsible for one’s actions. The desire for freedom is one of the most powerful human feelings. With freedom, a person associates the implementation of his plans and desires, the ability to freely choose life goals and ways to achieve them. But freedom was not always recognized as the natural right of every person. Aristotle, who could not imagine a society without slavery, argued that freedom lies only in the nature of noble people, and a slave has a slavish nature. True, he added, sometimes noble people fall into slavery because of monetary debts, but this is unfair. Aristotle failed to recognize that slavery contradicts the idea of natural rights, since according to it all people are considered free-born.
The idea of natural rights played a big role in the struggle against various forms of personal dependence of some people on others: slavery, serfdom, vassalage. As humanity progressed, the idea of freedom constantly expanded: the number of free people, the scope of their freedom, free choice, and self-determination grew.
In the history of philosophical thought, freedom is interpreted in different ways. Voluntarism absolutizes free will, bringing it to the arbitrariness of an unlimited personality, ignoring objective conditions and patterns. Fatalism views every human act as the inevitable realization of an primordial predestination that excludes free choice. Marxism understands freedom as a conscious necessity. Every free action of a person is a fusion of freedom and necessity. Necessity is contained in the form of conditions of existence objectively given to the individual.
Some modern philosophers believe that man is “doomed” to freedom, because... transformation of the world is a way of human existence and thereby creates an objective condition for freedom. Objective, i.e. independent of the will and consciousness of man. The emergence of the idea of freedom and social thought occurs only when consciousness sets in. First of all, this is an awareness of the profound fact that the paths of man and the paths of nature are different. Then - the realization that in general there is a variety of goals and ways to achieve them. Therefore, a person who lives and does not know that it is possible to live differently exists, as it were, outside the problem of freedom and necessity. The problem arises for him when he learns about the existence of other life paths and begins to evaluate and choose them. Philosophers identify stages in the development of the idea of freedom. The first stage of awareness of freedom is manifested in its definition as a conscious necessity. When a person begins to reflect on his life or the lives of others and understands that due to limited material or spiritual capabilities it cannot be changed. Then he voluntarily submits to the need to live as he lived before. The second stage in the development of the idea of freedom is the opportunity and ability to choose. The more material or spiritual means a person has at his disposal, the more opportunity he has to choose. But this is also only a stage in the development of the idea of freedom. The highest stage of development of the idea of freedom, according to modern philosophers, is the following: when all the existing options for choosing a person are not satisfied, and he has the power to create, create a new opportunity that did not exist before.
That. Liberty– this is the independence of social and political subjects (including individuals), expressed in their ability and opportunity to make their own choices and act in accordance with their interests and goals.
According to S. Montesquieu: “There is no word that would receive so many different meanings and would make such a different impression on the minds as the word “freedom.” Some call freedom the easy ability to overthrow those whom they consider to be a tyrannical power; others, the right to choose whom they must obey; still others – the right to bear arms and commit violence; still others see it as the privilege of being under the control of a person of their own nationality or being subject to their own laws. For a long time, a certain people cursed freedom for the custom of wearing a long beard. Others connect this name with a certain form of government... Finally, everyone called freedom the government that best suited his customs or inclinations.”
Here Montesquieu talks about the diverse interpretations of political freedom. Moreover, behind each of the opinions he gives there are specific facts, certain states, peoples, and political figures. The philosopher himself believes that political freedom consists in having the opportunity “to do what one should want, and not be forced to do what one should not want.” Thus, Montesquieu links political freedom with moral demands.
But, in addition to politics, freedom can be considered in relation to all spheres of social life - economic freedom, religious, intellectual, etc. and at all its levels - freedom of individuals, nations, states, and societies.
What does it mean to be free?
Does absolute freedom exist?
What are the boundaries of freedom, how are they determined?
Where does compulsion or necessity come from?
With all the controversy surrounding the meaning and essence of the concept of “freedom,” it is obvious that “pure” (absolute) freedom does not exist. You cannot live in society and be absolutely free from it. The freedom of each member of society is limited by the level of development and the nature of the society in which he lives. Disputes and disagreements raise the question of the source of this orderliness, and, consequently, the strategy of individual behavior.
Supporters of the first proceed from the act of divine creation of all things. With this understanding of necessity, is there any room left for human free will? (Page 218. Buridanov’s donkey.)
Another position is based on the interpretation of necessity as an objective law of development of nature and society. Within this approach, to be free means to know objective laws and make decisions based on and taking into account this knowledge (p. 219).
Despite all the differences in the above points of view, it is clear that it is, of course, possible to ignore the necessity, prevailing circumstances, conditions of activity, sustainable trends in human development, but this will be, as they say, “more expensive for yourself.” But there are restrictions that most people cannot accept and fight stubbornly against them. These are various forms of social and political tyranny; rigid class-caste structures that drive a person into a strictly defined cell of the social network; tyrannical states, where the will of a few or even one is subject to the life of the majority, etc. There is no place for freedom or it appears in an extremely reduced form.
Despite the importance of taking into account the external factors of freedom and its boundaries, in the opinion of many thinkers, internal freedom is even more important. “We will be freed from external oppression only when we are freed from internal slavery, i.e. Let’s take responsibility and stop blaming external forces for everything)), – wrote N.A. Berdyaev. In unison with the above statement, the words of the modern German philosopher G. Rauschning sound that the century has come “a dangerous freedom, a different freedom than the political and social freedom of the last past: an inner freedom that is always a test, never a privilege.”
Some modern philosophers argue that human activity cannot receive a goal from the outside at all; in his inner life the individual is absolutely free. He himself chooses not only an activity option, but also formulates general principles of behavior and looks for reasons for them. Therefore, the objective conditions of people’s existence do not play such a big role in their choice of a model of action (read the opposite position from the textbook, p. 221, answer the questions at the end of the paragraph).
The goals of human activity must be formulated in accordance with the internal motivations of each person. The limit of such freedom can only be the rights and freedoms of other people. Awareness of this by the person himself is necessary. Freedom is inseparable from responsibility, from duties to society and its other members.
Human freedom in all its manifestations is the basis of modern democratic regimes, the main value of liberalism. It finds expression in the legislative consolidation of the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens in the constitutions of states, in international covenants and declarations. In modern society, a tendency towards expanding human freedom is becoming more and more clear. In conclusion, let's complete the tasks.
1) In what sense is the concept of “freedom” used in the following poetic fragments?
1. Heavy shackles will fall,
The dungeons will collapse and so will freedom
You will be greeted joyfully at the entrance,
And the brothers will give you the sword. A.S. Pushkin
2. Protek for the Russian people
There has been a long century of darkness and tyranny.
I want to live, I want freedom!
I am equal to you, I am a man. A. Dobrolyubov
2) How do you understand the words of F.M. Dostoevsky: “There is no more continuous and more painful concern for a person than how, having remained free, to quickly find someone before whom to bow!” Does this mean that it is easier for a person to follow someone else's will than to make a free choice and be responsible for his actions? How then can we explain man’s ineradicable desire for freedom, the centuries-long struggle against oppression and tyranny?
Tasks No. 3,4, 6,7,9, page 224 of the textbook.
Homework § 20, answer question No. 5 or No. 8 in writing.
The answers to tasks 1–20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers in the fields to the right of the assignment number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.
1
Write down the word missing in the table.
Electoral systems
2
In the row below, find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts presented. Write down this word (phrase).
1) customs duties; 2) tax system; 3) excise taxes; 4) progressive scale; 5) declaration.
3
Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of “deviant behavior”.
1) offense, 2) deviation, 3) social status, 4) misdemeanor, 5) mobility, 6) crime.
Find two terms that “fall out” from the general series and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
4
Select the correct judgments about the relationship between freedom, necessity and responsibility in human activity and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. The variety of choices limits freedom in human activity.
2. One of the manifestations of necessity in human activity is the objective laws of the development of nature.
3. A person’s responsibility increases in conditions of limited choice of behavior strategies in certain situations.
4. Unlimited freedom is an unconditional benefit for individuals and society.
5. A person’s willingness to evaluate his actions in terms of their consequences for others serves as one of the manifestations of a sense of responsibility.
5
Establish a correspondence between the types of societies and the given characteristics: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
6
What levers of financial and economic regulation of the market can the state use?
1. fight against inflation
2. foreign loans
3. development of the economic education system in secondary schools
4. presentation of state awards for production successes
5. maintaining an effective employment rate
6. limiting the influence of globalization processes
7
Select the correct judgments about the factors that contribute to production efficiency in market conditions, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. The efficiency of production in market conditions is influenced by the use of the benefits of the international division of labor.
2. Factors promoting production efficiency in market conditions include the introduction of new taxes.
3. Increased production efficiency in a market economy is determined by government regulation of production costs.
4. Investment policy is one of the factors contributing to production efficiency in market conditions.
5. The efficiency of production in market conditions is determined by the general trends in economic development.
8
Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and types of economic systems
9
In State Z, most enterprises are privately owned, but there are state and municipal enterprises. What other signs indicate that the economy of country Z is a market type? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. Non-cash form is actively used in payments between enterprises.
2. Prices for goods and services are determined by the relationship between supply and demand.
3. Enterprises have to deal with the problem of limited resources.
4. Producers of goods and services compete for consumer demand.
5. Everyone has the right to freely dispose of their abilities and property for entrepreneurial and other economic activities not prohibited by law.
6. The state carries out centralized distribution of resources.
10
The graph shows the situation in the hairdressing services market: the supply line S has moved to a new position - S 1 (P is the price of the product, Q is the quantity of the product).
Which of the following factors could cause this change? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. expansion of the network of hairdressing salons
2. new fashion trends in hairstyles
3. tax reduction for small businesses
4. using new hair care products
5. change in income tax rate
11
Choose the correct statements about social mobility and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. Intergenerational mobility - a comparative change in social status among different generations.
2. Organized mobility refers to the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally, which is controlled by the state: with the consent of the people themselves, or without their consent.
3. The horizontal type of mobility includes receiving an extraordinary military rank.
4. Vertical mobility refers to a person’s transition to a lower social stratum.
5. Social mobility is the division of society into groups occupying different positions in society.
12
Scientists surveyed citizens of country Z. They were asked: “What, in your opinion, is associated with people’s deviant behavior?” The survey results (as a percentage of the number of respondents) are presented in the form of a diagram.
Find in the list below the conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. The smallest proportion of young men surveyed sees the cause of deviant behavior in the influence of the social environment.
2. The share of those who believe that a person’s deviant behavior is related to his lifestyle is higher among girls than among boys.
3. The same proportions of respondents in both groups believe that deviant behavior is a consequence of psychological character traits.
4. Three-quarters of respondents in each group believe that deviant behavior is associated with a person’s lifestyle.
5. The proportion of those who note a genetic predisposition to deviant behavior is higher among girls than among boys.
13
Choose the correct statements about the forms of government and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. The nature of the distribution of powers between the center and the regions determines the form of government.
2. All modern democratic states have a republican form of government.
3. Monarchical rule involves the transfer of power by inheritance.
4. In a republican form of government, unlike a monarchical one, the government is elected by the population.
5. In a republic, tenure in the highest elective posts is limited to a certain period.
14
Establish a correspondence between the sign of manifestation (indicated by letters) and the type of economic activity (indicated by numbers).
15
The Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation is the upper house of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation - the parliament of the Russian Federation. Select the answers indicating the powers of this body in accordance with Article 102 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
1. resolving the issue of trust in the Government of the Russian Federation
2. calling elections for the President of the Russian Federation
3. approval of the decree of the President of the Russian Federation on the introduction of a state of emergency
4. calling elections of the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution and federal law
5. appointment and dismissal of the Chairman of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation
16
Which of the following refers to the socio-economic rights of man and citizen enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. right to health care
2. the right to vote and be elected
3. right to social security by age
4. guarantees of judicial protection
5. the right to choose the language of communication
17
You have been asked to prepare a presentation about the Russian legal system. Which of the following can be included in the “Criminal Law” slide. Write down the numbers below which the relevant provisions are indicated.
1. The implementation of the protective function of this branch of law ensures the normal course of socially useful social relations regulated by other branches of law.
2. Types of punishment for violations of the norms of this branch of law include a fine and life imprisonment.
3. A branch of law that unites legal norms that define what acts are crimes and provide punishment for their commission.
4. Relations between the parties are built on the basis of the following principles: equality of the parties, property independence, independence, autonomy of will.
5. Sources include business customs.
6. The source of law identifies all types of crimes as the most dangerous illegal acts of people.
18
Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and types of social norms.
19
Select the correct judgments about legal culture and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. Legal culture is the totality of legal knowledge, beliefs and attitudes of an individual, implemented in the process of work, communication, and behavior.
2. Legal culture includes those elements of social consciousness that are associated with political institutions and the practice of their functioning.
3. Legal culture presupposes a certain level of legal thinking and sensory perception of legal reality.
4. Legal culture does not include the results of legal activity in the form of spiritual and material benefits created by people.
5. To assess the legal culture, compliance with the rule of law and the elimination of abuses of power are of utmost importance.
Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.
20
“A person who actively masters and purposefully transforms nature, society and himself is ______ (A). This is a person with his socially formed and individually expressed _____ (B): intellectual, emotional-volitional, moral, etc. Their formation is associated with the fact that _____ (B) in joint activities with other people learns and changes the world and himself. The process of this cognition in the course of assimilation and reproduction of social experience is at the same time a process of _____ (D). Personality is defined as a special form of existence and development of social connections, relationships to the world and with the world, to oneself and with oneself. It is characterized by _____ (D), i.e. the desire to go beyond one’s own limits, to develop, to expand the scope of one’s activities, and is open to all the influences of public life, to all experiences. This is a person who has his own ____ (E) in life, who shows independence of thought, and is responsible for his choice.”
The words (phrases) in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can be used only once.
Select one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you will need to fill in the gaps.
List of terms:
1. individual
2. quality
3. need
4. education
5. position
6. socialization
7. personality
8. activity
9. individuality
Part 2.
First write down the number of the task (28, 29, etc.), and then a detailed answer to it. Write down your answers clearly and legibly.
Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.
Special and vocational education... is a form of investment in human capital, absolutely similar to investing in equipment, buildings and other inanimate forms of capital. The function of such an investment is to increase a person's economic productivity. If the investment achieves this result, the free enterprise society rewards the individual with higher payment for his services. This difference in earnings is the economic incentive for investment of capital in the form of a machine or in the form of a person. In both cases, additional revenue must be commensurate with the costs incurred to obtain it. When it comes to special education, the major costs are income forgone during the education period, interest in earnings forgone by deferring earnings, and education-specific expenses such as tuition and costs of books and equipment. ..
Investments in human capital cannot be financed on the same terms and with the same ease as investments in physical capital. It's not hard to understand why this happens. When a long-term loan is made to finance an investment in physical capital, the lender is able to secure security in the form of real estate or the remaining claim on the physical assets themselves and, in the event of default, can expect to realize at least part of its investment through the sale of the physical assets. If he makes a similar loan to increase the profitability of a person, it is obviously impossible for him to secure similar security... Such investments inevitably involve great risk. The average expected profit may be high, but deviations from the average can be quite large. One obvious cause of deviation is death or disability, but much more important, apparently, are differences in ability, energy and luck. As a consequence, if long-term loans are provided, the security of which is only expected future earnings, a significant proportion of them will not be repaid...
Whatever the reasons, market failures have led to underinvestment in human capital. Therefore, government intervention can be justified both by a “technical monopoly” (since the spread of such investments runs into administrative costs) and by the need to correct the situation on the market (since the market in this case has not shown flexibility).
(M. Friedman)
What function of vocational education is named by the author? What is the economic incentive to invest in vocational education? What specific costs of purchasing education must be taken into account when determining the effectiveness of an investment?
Show answer
1) answer to the first question: increasing human economic productivity;
2) answer to the second question: higher payment for labor services;
3) answer to the third question: tuition fees, textbooks and equipment. Answers to questions can be
are given in other, similar in meaning formulations
What factors that generate risks of investing in human capital did the author consider? Using the text, identify three risk factors.
Show answer
The following Risk Factors may be listed:
1) it is impossible to obtain security in the form of tangible assets;
2) death of a person or loss of ability to work;
3) differences in abilities, hard work, luck.
Risk factors may be indicated in other, similar formulations
Show answer
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) answer to question: in the process of socialization, the individual develops the intellectual, social and physical skills necessary to fulfill his social roles;
2) social roles and corresponding examples, let's say:
Student (for example, a first-grader learns to read and write, masters school discipline requirements; all this will later help him in learning at different levels of general and vocational education);
Family member (for example, parents teach the child basic self-care techniques in everyday life; on this basis, the child’s participation in housework and housekeeping will increase in the future). Other social roles of a teenager can be named and other examples given
Examples of the performance of social roles that do not show a connection with socialization are not counted in the assessment.
Indication of social roles that are not typical for a teenager is not counted in the assessment, even if correct
The state controls certain aspects of the socialization of individuals. Using the text, social science knowledge, and social facts, give three explanations for this fact.
Show answer
The following explanations may be given:
1) the state is interested in the formation of civic values, a certain political culture of citizens;
2) the state is interested in maintaining law and order and developing the legal consciousness of citizens;
3) the state carries out certain expenses on education and culture and is interested in the efficient use of invested funds;
4) the state is interested in the normal functioning of the labor market, because it sets certain priorities in the development of vocational education.
Other explanations may be given.
What meaning do social scientists give to the concept of “employment contract”? Using knowledge from a social science course, compose two sentences: one sentence containing information about the age at which in the Russian Federation it is allowed to conclude an employment contract as a general rule, and one sentence disclosing any guarantee established by Russian legislation when concluding an employment contract.
Show answer
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) meaning of the concept, for example: an employment contract is an agreement between an employee and an employer establishing their mutual rights and obligations; (Another, similar definition or explanation of the meaning of the concept may be given.)
2) one sentence with information about the age at which in the Russian Federation it is allowed to conclude an employment contract according to the general rule: The conclusion of an employment contract according to the general rule is allowed with persons who have reached the age of 16 years.
(Another sentence may be drawn up containing information about the age for concluding an employment contract as a general rule.)
3) one sentence, disclosing, based on knowledge of the course, any guarantee established by Russian legislation when concluding an employment contract. For example: one of the guarantees established by Russian legislation when concluding an employment contract is the prohibition of unreasonable refusal to conclude an employment contract.
(Another proposal may be drawn up, disclosing, based on knowledge of the course, any guarantee established by Russian legislation when concluding an employment contract.)
Name and illustrate with examples any three main responsibilities of an employee enshrined in the Labor Code of the Russian Federation.
Show answer
The correct answer should have named and illustrated with examples of employee responsibilities, let's say:
1) conscientiously fulfill her work duties (for example, Olga works as a teacher; she prepares for lessons, checks her students’ notebooks, etc.);
2) maintain labor discipline (for example, Leonid is never late for work);
3) comply with established labor standards (for example, a doctor at a clinic sees patients at a scheduled time);
4) comply with labor protection and occupational safety requirements (for example, Matvey is an electrician, he never works without appropriate protection);
5) take care of the employer’s property (for example, Fedor works as a bus driver; he maintains order and cleanliness in the cabin and interior, reminds passengers that they should not damage the seats, paint the walls and litter on the bus);
6) immediately inform the employer or immediate supervisor about the occurrence of a situation that poses a threat to the life and health of people, the safety of the employer’s property (for example, Irina, while at her workplace, smelled smoke, called the fire department and notified the company’s management).
Other responsibilities may be named and illustrated, and other examples may be given.
Country Z is undergoing education reform. Students were given the opportunity to choose special courses and profiles taking into account their interests and abilities. What trend in the development of education does this example illustrate? Give any two of your own examples illustrating this trend. One of the options for a plan for covering this topic
1) The concept of socialization of the individual.
2) Main stages of socialization:
a) primary (from infancy to youth);
b) secondary (mastering new social roles in adulthood).
3) Socialization functions:
a) mastering a system of knowledge about the world, man and society;
b) assimilation of moral values and ideals;
c) mastering practical skills, abilities, etc.
4) Institutes (agents) of socialization:
a) the importance of family in primary socialization;
b) the role of education in the socialization of the individual;
c) peer influence on socialization;
d) The media as agents of socialization, etc.
5) The importance of socialization for the development of personality.
A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms
By completing task 29, you can demonstrate your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, select only ONE of the statements below (29.1-29.5).
Choose one of the statements proposed below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, indicating, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic raised).
When expressing your thoughts about the raised problem (designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained from studying the social studies course, relevant concepts, as well as facts of social life and your own life experience. (Give at least two examples from different sources for factual argumentation.)
29.1. Philosophy“The completeness of knowledge always means some lack of understanding of the depth of our ignorance.” (R. Milliken)
29.2. Economy“Inflation is a form of taxation that does not require legislative approval.” (M. Friedman)
29.3. Sociology, social psychology“There are many ways to make a career, but the surest one is to be born into the right family.” (D. Trump)
29.4. Political science“A person’s freedom begins from the moment when the laws adopted in the state in which he lives come into force.” (K. Jaspers)
29.5. Jurisprudence“It is impossible to take a single step on this earth without coming into contact with a responsibility and a duty that must be fulfilled.” (T. Carlyle)
SELF-TEST SURVEYS
1. How was the concept of “freedom” connected with the political struggle in Modern and Contemporary times?
In New and Contemporary times, the desire for freedom, liberation from the shackles of despotism manifested itself with particular force. All revolutions wrote the word “freedom” on their banners. Few of the political leaders and revolutionary leaders did not vow to lead the masses under their leadership to true freedom.
2. What can unlimited freedom of choice lead to?
Unlimited freedom of choice will lead to chaos. If many people are given unlimited freedom, they will want a lot and will not know the limit, but on Earth many benefits are themselves limited and one must come to terms with this. In addition, rules and laws will disappear, there will be no punishment for such terrible crimes as theft and murder, etc. And the third scenario is related to the impossibility of absolute freedom. Such freedom would mean unlimited choice for a person, which would put him in an extremely difficult position when making a decision. The common noun expression “Buridan’s donkey” is widely known. The French philosopher J. Buridan (c. 1300 - 1358) is credited with a story about a donkey that was placed between two identical and equidistant armfuls of hay. Not deciding which armful to prefer, the donkey died of hunger. The same could happen to a person.
3. How is freedom interpreted in Christian teaching?
There is no freedom as such in the Christian faith. Christians see God's Providence here. Everything is predetermined for them. “God’s foreknowledge and omnipotence are diametrically opposed to our free will. Everyone will be forced to accept the inevitable consequence: we do nothing of our own free will, but everything happens out of necessity. Thus, we do nothing by free will, but everything depends on the foreknowledge of God,” said religious reformer Martin Luther. This position is defended by supporters of absolute predestination.
4. Show how knowledge of the objective laws of nature influences the conscious activity of people.
It is very important to take into account the objective laws of nature in your decisions so as not to get into a difficult situation. For example, if we know that in a given area there is an active volcano nearby, we will not build our housing here, because... this poses a danger.
5. What is social necessity expressed in?
In its most general form, social necessity means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption.
The main mechanisms of social necessity are relations of property, power (dominance and subordination), social (that is, socially assigned and hierarchized) division of labor, as well as uncontrolled, spontaneous social differentiation. Social necessity is perceived and experienced by many people (primarily the unemployed, economic migrants, those who find themselves at or below the poverty line) as a manifestation of injustice. Social necessity and the property stratification of society, as a rule, lead to increased social tension, especially during the transition period. This is precisely what is typical for Russia at present.
6. Explain the connection between the concepts of “freedom”, “choice”, “responsibility”.
The connection between these concepts is very significant: freedom implies the presence of options. Freedom of choice implies the individual's responsibility for the choice made.
In general, the term "free society" is used to refer to a society where political and economic ideals actually function. In the theory of a free society, all people have free access to power and the resources they need to realize their potential. A free society is based on three pillars: economic freedom, freedom of speech and freedom of religion.
Economic freedom is based on the functioning of the market free from any government interference. The only thing that is under the control of the state is the protection of property rights. Prices should be set only by participants in economic interactions based on supply and demand. With economic freedom, every manufacturer has the right to produce what he wants, and every buyer has the right to purchase any product from any manufacturer. Thus, in a free society there should be no monopolies, prices cannot be artificially inflated.
Freedom of speech implies the right of every person to voice his point of view and the absence of censorship. Although this right is used in a number of countries, in reality its implementation is very far from ideal. Freedom of religion means complete freedom to choose a religious denomination, as well as the right not to profess any religion at all.
A person should have the right to unlimited freedom in his own life, freedom to pursue his own goals, but only as long as he does not violate the rights of other people. Therefore, the state only needs to ensure the rights of each person, and not infringe on them. Only then is it possible to create a free society.
TASKS
1. Give arguments supporting the conclusion about the impossibility of absolute, unlimited human freedom in society.
A person's life in society is limited by law. And no matter how much we would like to cross the street in an undesignated place, we will be punished, since this is a violation of traffic rules.
2. Which of the two statements below do you think is more true?
“Our life is a line that we must, at the behest of nature, describe on the surface of the globe, without being able to move away from it for a single moment.”
“The course of things seems inevitable only to those who have betrayed their convictions. History itself can neither force a person nor draw him into a dirty business. Man carries the whole weight of the world on his shoulders: he is responsible for the world and himself.”
3. Explain how you understand the expression: “Freedom is choice.”
Freedom is the absence of any restrictions or restrictions in anything. Accordingly, freedom gives a person the right to choose everything.
4. Describe the various models of a free society. What are your ideas about such a society?
A free society is a society unrestricted by any laws. It would be impossible to exist in such a society; chaos would ensue. Thus, an absolutely free society is an illusion, and any sufficiently educated and thinking person realizes this. It is only possible to strive for freedom, but at the same time it is important to act according to your conscience, without losing human dignity, and be sure to correlate your actions with the comfort of others.
5. Sometimes freedom is understood as permissiveness. At the beginning of the 20th century. in Russian villages they sang the following ditty:
There is no God, there is no need for a king.
We'll kill the governor
We won't pay taxes
We will not become soldiers.
What consequences can this interpretation of freedom lead to? Concretize your answer with examples.
This interpretation of freedom leads to permissiveness, which gives rise to theft, murder, lies, etc., which was observed in Russian villages at the beginning of the 20th century. at the next strike against the landowner.
These lessons open a new topic for the course “Socio-political human activity and the development of society.” The choice of forms and methods of work in lessons is largely determined by the specifics of the content, which, in our opinion, is expressed in the following:
The central concept of the subtopic “freedom” is highly semantically loaded, its ambiguity and diversity of aspects, which inevitably makes the range of issues under consideration quite wide;
Diversity in interpretations and assessments of almost all issues covered by this subtopic. This, on the one hand, gives an “open” character to the problems being studied and makes it difficult to introduce strict definitions; on the other hand, it involves the inclusion of elements of discussion in the content;
The closest meaningful connection of many aspects of the subtopic (free will, choice, political freedoms and their legal guarantees and boundaries) with moral, ethical and legal issues. Consequently, where students have not addressed the relevant material in basic school, the teacher will have to provide additional explanations and comments.
The main objectives of studying this subtopic include:
Introducing students to the various meanings and aspects of the concept of “freedom”;
Analysis of some philosophical, socio-political, moral and ethical problems (freedom and necessity, freedom and arbitrariness, freedom and responsibility), which have not only a generalized philosophical, but also a deeply personal meaning; identifying different approaches to solving these problems.
Methodological means that are most adequate to the goals and features of the content of the subtopic can be considered problem-based learning methods (creation of problem situations, problem presentation, heuristic conversation). It is also very effective to refer to fragments from philosophical, scientific, and popular science works of authors belonging to various schools and directions.
Plan for learning new material
1. The concept of “freedom”.
2. Why can’t there be absolute freedom?
3. Boundaries of freedom:
a) “external” necessity and its various manifestations;
b) “internal” regulators of freedom.
1 . We can begin to consider the first question with the statement of C. Montesquieu: “There is no word that would receive so many different meanings and would make such a different impression on the minds as the word “freedom”. Some call freedom the easy ability to overthrow those whom they consider to be a tyrannical power; others, the right to choose whom they must obey; still others - the right to bear arms and commit violence; still others see it as the privilege of being governed by a man of his own nationality or being subject to his own laws. For a long time, a certain people cursed freedom for the custom of wearing a long beard. Others connect this name with a certain form of government... Finally, everyone called freedom the government that best suited his customs or inclinations.”
Here Montesquieu speaks of diverse interpretations namely political freedom. Moreover, behind each of the opinions he gives there are specific facts, certain states, peoples, and political figures. Together with your students, you can try to restore these historical realities. Many of these interpretations remain relevant to this day. The philosopher himself believed that political freedom consists of being able to “do what one should want, and not be forced to do what one should not want.” Thus, Montesquieu linked political freedom with moral demands.
But, in addition to politics, freedom can be considered in relation to all spheres of society - economic freedom, religious, intellectual etc. and at all its levels - freedom of the individual, nations, states, society.
If we turn to the personal level, the problem of freedom comes down to the question: does a person have free will, in other words, are his intentions and actions determined by external circumstances or not?
2 . With all the controversy surrounding the meaning and essence of the concept of “freedom,” it is obvious that “pure” (absolute) freedom does not exist. Here it is appropriate to refer to the textbook (section “Buridan’s Donkey”), where some arguments are given to substantiate this conclusion. One of these arguments - the assertion that complete freedom of one leads to complete arbitrariness in relation to another - schoolchildren can illustrate with their own examples.
It is important to emphasize the position that follows from this thesis: freedom is human relationship, a form of connection between a person and other people. Just as it is impossible to love alone, it is also impossible to be truly free without others or at their expense. In other words, in order to become absolutely free, a person would have to free himself from relationships with others, and therefore from himself.
3 . But what are the boundaries of freedom, how are they determined?
The first bunch of concepts that is in the center of attention of schoolchildren is freedom and necessity. First of all, it is advisable to identify the manifestation of a need external to a person. In essence, we are talking about the laws of man’s natural and social environment, which he cannot ignore. Disputes and disagreements arise about the source of this orderliness, and, consequently, about the strategy of individual behavior. In this regard, it is appropriate to dwell on two main positions. Supporters of the first proceed from the act of Divine creation of all things. With such an understanding of necessity, is there any room left for human free will? The various answers to this question are analyzed in the textbook.
Another position is based on the interpretation of necessity as an objective law of development of nature and society. Within the framework of this approach, to be free means to know objective laws and make decisions based on and taking into account this knowledge.
Despite all the differences in the above points of view, it is clear that it is, of course, possible to ignore the necessity, prevailing circumstances, conditions of activity, sustainable trends in human development, but this will be, as they say, “more expensive for yourself.”
But there are restrictions that most people cannot accept and fight stubbornly against them. These are various forms of social and political tyranny; rigid class-caste structures that drive a person into a strictly defined cell of the social network; tyrannical states, where the life of the majority is subject to the will of a few or even one, etc. There is no place for freedom here or it appears in an extremely reduced form. Schoolchildren are asked to cite the facts of liberation movements known to them from history, to remember what their social composition was, the main slogans, and results. It is important to emphasize that among the achievements of mankind along this path should be the establishment of legal norms, democratic institutions, and the emergence of rule of law states. It is appropriate to use task 3 given at the end of § 18 of the textbook.
Despite the importance of taking into account the external factors of freedom and its boundaries, even more important, according to many thinkers, is inner freedom. “We will free ourselves from external oppression only when we free ourselves from internal slavery, that is, we take responsibility for ourselves and stop blaming external forces for everything,” wrote N. A. Berdyaev. In unison with the above statement, the words of the modern German philosopher G. Rauschning sound: the age of “dangerous freedom, a different freedom than the political and social freedom of the last past: inner freedom, which is always a test, never a privilege,” has come.
Thus, we move to a new conceptual plane: freedom - responsibility. You can start a discussion of the problem of pressing choice in given circumstances and responsibility for your decisions by turning to the plot of the parable story “Six and Seven” from the novel “The Scaffold” by Ch. Aitmatov. Let us remember that we are talking about one of the episodes of the Civil War. Security officer Sandro infiltrates a detachment of counter-revolutionaries led by the daring Guram Dzhokhadze to carry out the order: destroy the detachment and its leader. The security officer manages to win the complete trust of the squad members: he shares bread and salt with them, already doomed and fleeing abroad, sings songs around the fire in which people say goodbye to their homeland, and then, seizing the moment, kills the leader and everyone else with a Mauser. The order has been completed. What does the fearless security officer do next? “Sandro once again silently walked around the six, struck on the spot, and, moving a little to the side, put the barrel of the Mauser to his temple. Once again the shot sounded in the mountains with a short echo. Now he was the seventh to sing his songs..."
Schoolchildren are invited to reflect on how, taking into account the categories of “necessity”, “freedom”, “choice”, “duty”, this parable and especially its ending can be interpreted.
You can refer to various situations, real or created by the creative imagination of writers. It is important to convince students: without moral restrictions there is no true freedom. A person is truly free only when he consciously and voluntarily makes a sometimes painful choice in favor of good.
In more prepared classes, it is advisable to organize work with small fragments from philosophical works.
Fragment 1: from the work of N. A. Berdyaev “The Meaning of Creativity. Experience of human justification." ( Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev(1874-1948) - Russian philosopher, in his youth he was fond of Marxism, then switched to the position of Christianity. In 1922, together with a group of philosophers, he was expelled from Soviet Russia.)
Man is aware of his greatness and power, and his insignificance and weakness, his royal freedom and his slavish dependence, he recognizes himself as the image and likeness of God and a drop in the ocean of natural necessity. With almost equal right one can speak about the Divine origin of man and about his origin from the lower forms of organic life in nature. With almost equal force of argumentation, philosophers defend the original freedom of man and perfect determinism, which introduces man into the fatal chain of natural necessity... A strange creature - dual and ambiguous, having a regal appearance and a slave appearance, a free and chained creature, strong and weak, uniting greatness in one being with insignificance, eternal with perishable.
Questions and tasks for the text
1. Do you share Berdyaev’s conclusion about the inconsistency of human nature?
2. In what way, in your opinion, is a person’s “royal freedom” manifested?
3. What indicates his “slave dependence”?
4. Was man, in his original existence in the early stages of development, free or was he completely at the mercy of necessity? What forces personified then a harsh and immutable necessity for man?
When discussing the last question, it is appropriate to specify Berdyaev’s thesis that philosophers sharply disagree in assessing the degree and manifestations of human freedom in primitive conditions. Some believe that the absence at this stage of development of any developed forms of social dependence (slavery, class, racial, religious inequality) led to harmony in the relations of people among themselves and with nature. Many thinkers (for example, J.-J. Rousseau) placed the golden age of humanity in the past. There is another point of view. According to it, people in a primitive state could hardly feel free, if only because of their dependence on natural factors. However, there is more to it than that. Many religious philosophers argue that even worse forms of slavery appeared at this stage. People who did not discover the highest moral laws for themselves and did not turn them into their inner convictions were completely at the mercy of their desires and passions, which were often harmful to themselves and to others.
Thus, already here we see a distinction between external freedom, achieved by weakening all forms of social dependence and “conquering nature,” and internal freedom, associated with the restructuring of man’s entire worldview.
Fragment 2: from the work of E. Cassirer “Technique of modern political myths.” ( Ernst Kassirer(1874-1945) - German philosopher. He was rector of the University of Hamburg; When the Nazis came to power in Germany, he emigrated and in recent years taught at leading American universities.)
As soon as we begin to think about free will, an impenetrable labyrinth of metaphysical questions and paradoxes arises before us. We know that political freedom is one of the most used and profaned slogans. All political parties claim that they are the most faithful representatives and defenders of “freedom”. But they always define the term as they please and use it to their advantage. Freedom as an ethical category is a much simpler thing. It is free from the polysemy that is inherent in the political and philosophical term...<…>
It is not the responsibility of the motive, but the nature of the motivation that distinguishes free action. In an ethical sense, a person is free if this motivation is based on his own judgment of what is his moral duty.<…>This means that the laws to which we obey in our actions do not come from outside, but the subject himself establishes them for himself.
In setting out his theory, Kant warned against the possibility of a fundamental misunderstanding: ethical freedom, he said, is not a fact, but a postulate, it is not a gift that human nature possesses, but rather the most difficult task that a person can set for himself. Fulfilling the requirements of ethical freedom becomes especially difficult in times of acute social crises, when the destruction of all the foundations of social life seems inevitable, when the individual feels a deep lack of faith in his own strength.
Freedom is not a natural property of a person: in order to own it, you need to create it. If we simply follow our natural instincts, we will never feel the need for freedom - we would rather choose slavery. It is obvious that it is much easier to rely on others than to think, judge, and decide for yourself. This is the reason why, in both personal and political life, freedom is treated more as a burden than as a privilege. In difficult conditions, a person strives to throw off this burden. This is where the totalitarian state and political myths come into play. New political parties promise to at least get rid of the “freedom or unfreedom” dilemma. They suppress and destroy the very meaning of freedom, but they free a person from all personal responsibility.
Questions and tasks for the text
1. What meanings of the concept “freedom” does the author discuss in this passage?
2. How does he feel about the use of the slogan of political freedom by various political parties? What caused this attitude?
3. What is the meaning of freedom as a moral and ethical category?
Man is born free;
Does a person become free?
5. Why does fulfilling the requirements of freedom become especially difficult during crisis periods of social development?
6. Do you agree with the thesis that, following his natural instincts, a person would rather prefer slavery to freedom? Justify your conclusion.
7. How do you understand the situation: a totalitarian state destroys the very meaning of freedom, while freeing a person from personal responsibility?
8. How do you think the concepts of “freedom” and “responsibility” are related? Is it possible to bear responsibility in conditions of “unfreedom”? Is there such a thing as “irresponsible” freedom?
To make the discussion about the relationship between free will and responsibility more concrete, we can turn to the analysis of the following situation. A man commits an involuntary murder. Is he responsible (in this case we mean primarily moral responsibility) and for what? It is appropriate to mention here that controversy on this issue has been going on for a long time. Thus, already in the Middle Ages, two famous Catholic thinkers gave opposing answers to this question. P. Abelard believed that even an unwitting murderer is burdened with the sin of murder. Bernard of Clairvaux did not agree with him, declaring the innocence of a person who committed an offense through coercion. Where there is no freedom of choice, there can be no responsibility.
However, according to a number of philosophers - already our contemporaries, a person always has freedom of choice, and therefore, he cannot be freed from the burden of responsibility.
Fragment 3 just taken from the work of a philosopher of this direction. This is an excerpt from A. Camus’ essay “The Myth of Sisyphus.” ( Albert Camus(1913-1960) - French philosopher and writer, Nobel Prize laureate in literature; During the Second World War he took an active part in the Resistance movement.)
I am not interested in whether a person is free at all; I can only feel my own freedom. I have no general ideas about freedom, but only a few distinct ideas. The problem of “freedom in general” does not make sense, because it is somehow connected with the problem of God. To know whether a person is free, it is enough to know whether he has a master. What makes this problem absurd is that the same concept poses the problem of freedom and at the same time deprives it of all meaning, since in the presence of God this is no longer so much a problem of freedom as a problem of evil. The alternative is known: either we are not free and the answer for evil lies with omnipotent God, or we are free and responsible, and God is not omnipotent.
Questions to the text
1. What does Camus consider to be the main criterion in determining human freedom?
If students are familiar with F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Demons,” it makes sense to remind them of some of the statements of one of the heroes of the novel, Kirillov: “For three years I searched for the attribute of my deity and found it: the attribute of my new one is Self-will!” “If there is no God, then I am God.” Thus, in order to become free, one must “kill” God; this is the only way to not serve any immortal being, not to depend on a higher will. It is useful to remember with students how the writer himself felt about this kind of position (partly embodied in the quests of some of the heroes of The Brothers Karamazov), what fate he prepared for Kirillov, Stavrogin, and Ivan Karamazov in his works. It is characteristic that a very real person is similar to the fictional hero Ivan Karamazov - the most famous German philosopher of the late 20th century, a desperate fighter against God, Friedrich Nietzsche.
In conclusion, we present options for tasks that can be used both in this lesson and when summing up the study of the entire section.
1. In what sense is the concept of “freedom” used in the following poetic fragments?
2. How do you understand the words of F. M. Dostoevsky: “There is no more continuous and painful concern for a person than how, having remained free, to quickly find someone to bow to”? Does this mean that it is easier for a person to follow someone else's will than to make a free choice and be responsible for his actions? How then can we explain man’s ineradicable desire for freedom, the centuries-long struggle against oppression and tyranny?
3. Below are excerpts from two documents.
Compare them, indicate similarities and differences.
“...People are born and remain free and equal in rights: social differences can only be based on the common benefit.
The purpose of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; These rights are freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression...
Freedom consists in the ability to do everything that does not harm others; therefore, the enjoyment of the natural rights of each person has no other limits than those that provide other members of society with these same rights. These boundaries can only be determined by law.”
From the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789).
All people are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and must act towards each other in a spirit of brotherhood.<…>
Every person has the right to life, liberty and security of person.<…>
Article 29 (clause 2)
In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, each person shall be subject only to such restrictions as are prescribed by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and satisfying the just demands of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
From the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
4. The German philosopher Schelling wrote: “Freedom should not be a mercy or a blessing that can be enjoyed as a forbidden fruit. Freedom must be guaranteed by an order as clear and immutable as the laws of nature.”
What order do you think Schelling had in mind?
It is extremely important for every person to feel free and independent from external circumstances and from other people. However, it is not at all easy to figure out whether true freedom exists, or whether all our actions are determined by necessity.
Freedom and necessity. Concepts and categories
Many people believe that freedom is the opportunity to always do and act as you want, to follow your desires and not depend on the opinions of others. However, such an approach to defining freedom in real life would lead to arbitrariness and infringement of the rights of other people. That is why the concept of necessity stands out in philosophy.
Necessity is some life circumstances that constrain freedom and force a person to act in accordance with common sense and accepted norms in society. Necessity sometimes contradicts our desires, however, thinking about the consequences of our actions, we are forced to limit our freedom. Freedom and necessity in human activity are categories of philosophy, the connection between which is the subject of dispute among many scientists.
Is there absolute freedom?
Complete freedom means doing absolutely whatever he wants, regardless of whether his actions cause harm or inconvenience to anyone. If everyone could act according to their desires without thinking about the consequences for other people, the world would be in complete chaos. For example, if a person wanted to have the same phone as a colleague, having complete freedom, he could simply come up and take it away.
That is why society has created certain rules and norms that limit permissiveness. In the modern world, it is regulated primarily by law. There are other norms that influence people's behavior, such as etiquette and subordination. Such actions give a person confidence that his rights will not be infringed by others.
The connection between freedom and necessity
In philosophy, there have long been debates about how freedom and necessity are related to each other, whether these concepts contradict each other or, on the contrary, are inseparable.
Freedom and necessity in human activity are considered by some scientists as mutually exclusive concepts. From the point of view of adherents of the theory of idealism, freedom can only exist in conditions in which it is not limited by anyone or anything. In their opinion, any prohibitions make it impossible for a person to understand and evaluate the moral consequences of his actions.
Proponents of mechanical determinism, on the contrary, believe that all events and actions in human life are determined by external necessity. They completely deny the existence of free will and define necessity as an absolute and objective concept. In their opinion, all actions performed by people do not depend on their desires and are obviously predetermined.
Scientific approach
From the perspective of the scientific approach, freedom and necessity in human activity are closely interrelated. Freedom is defined as a perceived necessity. A person is not able to influence the objective conditions of his activity, but he can choose the goal and means of achieving it. Thus, freedom in human activity is the opportunity to make an informed choice. That is, make one decision or another.
Freedom and necessity in human activity cannot exist without each other. In our life, freedom manifests itself as constant freedom of choice, while necessity is present as objective circumstances in which a person is forced to act.
in everyday life
Every day a person is given the opportunity to choose. Almost every minute we make decisions in favor of one option or another: get up early in the morning or sleep longer, eat something hearty for breakfast or drink tea, walk to work or go by car. External circumstances do not influence our choice in any way - a person is guided solely by personal beliefs and preferences.
Freedom is always a relative concept. Depending on specific conditions, a person may have freedom or lose it. The degree of manifestation is also always different. In some circumstances, a person can choose goals and means of achieving them, in others, freedom lies only in choosing a way to adapt to reality.
Connection with progress
In ancient times, people had fairly limited freedom. The need for human activity was not always realized. People depended on nature, the secrets of which the human mind could not comprehend. There was a so-called unknown necessity. Man was not free, he remained a slave for a long time, blindly obeying the laws of nature.
As science developed, people found answers to many questions. Phenomena that were previously divine for humans received a logical explanation. People's actions became meaningful, and cause-and-effect relationships made it possible to realize the need for certain actions. The higher the progress of society, the freer a person becomes in it. In the modern world in developed countries, the limit of individual freedom is only the rights of other people.
