China and the Mongols - the history of relations. World history lesson on the topic: "China. Mongolia 20th century" Mongolia after the Second World War

With the attack of Nazi Germany on the USSR on June 22, 1941, the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people began, which lasted about four years. In December 1941, the Pacific War began between Japan and the United States. The interests of the anti-fascist struggle required the urgent creation of an anti-Hitler coalition.

The ruling circles of the USA and England officially notified the Soviet government of their readiness to provide assistance. Thus, the anti-Hitler coalition was created. The MPR resolutely sided with this coalition. On June 22, 1941, a joint meeting of the Presidium of the Mongolian Parliament and the government of the country was held, at which the attitude of the Mongolian people to the Great Patriotic War/WWII/ Soviet Union. It declared its loyalty to the obligations assumed under the Protocol on Mutual Assistance, concluded between the MPR and the USSR on March 12, 1936.

The decisions of the highest state authorities noted that the most important and fundamental task of the MPR is the task of providing all possible assistance to the peoples of the Soviet Union in their struggle against Nazi Germany, because without Victory over fascism, which threatened to enslave all the peoples of the world, further free and successful development of the MPR is impossible. The Mongolian people enthusiastically accepted this call. A wave of rallies and meetings swept across the country, at which a sincere desire was expressed to help the Soviet people. To organize the work of creating a special fund and sending gifts to Soviet soldiers at the front, a Central Commission was formed under the Government of the country in September 1941. Local commissions were also created in each aimak.

Money, gold and silver items and other valuables, warm clothes (fur coats, felt boots, fur vests, quilted jackets, overcoats, scarves, mittens, etc.), food (meat, sausages and confectionery, butter) were contributed to the Red Army Relief Fund , canned food, jam, berries, mushrooms, vodka, etc.).

The movement to provide assistance to the Soviet people covered all segments of the population and became truly massive.

Brigades for the procurement of furs and meat were organized locally. On the initiative of Mongolian women, hundreds of circles worked on knitting and making warm clothes for Soviet soldiers. Many medical workers and ordinary people voluntarily became donors. Youth and trade union organizations organized subbotniks, the proceeds of which were contributed to the fund to help the Soviet people. Workers of many enterprises, refusing days off and regular vacations, worked overtime, exceeded monthly and quarterly plans, and donated the products produced and the money earned during this time to the relief fund. They spared nothing to achieve the Victory of the Soviet people over Nazi Germany and ensure peace. In all the nomadic camps, in all the houses and yurts, gifts were prepared for the front-line soldiers. Every worker considered it his duty to send to the front what he could and had. The Mongolian people provided the Soviet soldiers not only with material, but also with moral assistance and support.

Letter from the front in Mongolian script

From all over the country, workers, cattle breeders, representatives of the intelligentsia, students of secondary schools and technical schools, soldiers of the people's army sent thousands of collective and individual letters to the Soviet government, soldiers, commanders of units of the Red Army, and in response received many letters from Soviet people. The prepared gifts were delivered to the front by representatives of the Mongolian people in eight echelons.

In total, during the war years, the workers of the MPR sent gifts totaling 65 million tugriks to the Volkhov, Kalinin, North-Western and Western fronts.

One of the most effective forms of assistance was the acquisition of military weapons at the expense of the Mongolian people and their transfer to the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union.

The ceremonial transfer of the tank column “Revolutionary Mongolia” (32 T-34 tanks and 21 T-70 tanks) to the wars of the 112th Red Banner Tank Brigade

A tank column was created, which was built with funds raised by the population of Mongolia. January 12, 1943 A tank column called “Revolutionary Mongolia”, which included 53 tanks, was solemnly transferred by the MPR delegation to the 112th Order of the Red Banner tank brigade. The column traveled a glorious battle path from the Moscow region to Berlin. In 1943, the Mongolian Arat air squadron was also built with funds raised by the population of Mongolia.

The ceremonial transfer of the squadron, consisting of 12 La-5 combat aircraft, took place on September 25, 1943 at a field airfield near Vyazovaya station, Smolensk region. Pilots of the Mongolian Arat squadron participated in many offensive operations of the troops of the Kalinin, Western and 1st Baltic fronts, showing courage and heroism in the battles for the liberation of the territory of Belarus, Lithuania, East Prussia and Poland from the German fascists.

Along with this, the Mongolian population sold a significant number of horses for the needs of the Red Army. This work was carried out throughout the country as a major campaign of political importance, thanks to which the annual plans for the purchase of horses were always exceeded. Mongolian cattle breeders not only sold, but also began a movement to donate the best horses to Soviet soldiers.

During the war years, arats-cattle breeders sold 485 thousand and gave over 32.5 thousand horses. At the end of the war, work was organized to purchase horses and breeding cattle for donation to collective farms in the liberated areas. Thus, Mongolia made its concrete contribution to the defeat of Nazi Germany. As is known, at the Crimean Conference a program for a democratic structure of the post-war world was developed. The final decisions on Far Eastern issues were made there. The heads of the three allied powers signed the Agreement on the Far East, which provided for the USSR's obligation to enter the war against Japan.

As one of the most important conditions, the clause “Maintaining the status quo of Outer Mongolia” (MPR) was included in the Agreement on the Far East.

As is known, status quo is a term of international law used to designate any factual or legal situation that existed or exists at a certain moment, the preservation of which is in question. Thus, this meant that the USA, England and the USSR actually recognized the independence and sovereignty of the Mongolian People's Republic.

As you know, after the Victory of the Mongolian Revolution of 1921. The government of the country addressed all countries with a declaration in which it stated its desire to establish friendly relations with all countries. The US and European governments have not responded to the Mongolian government's repeated peace proposals. The Beijing government not only did not want to do anything in this direction, but also tried in every possible way to complicate the relationship between the two countries. Under these conditions, the decisive factor in Mongolia’s foreign policy was the strengthening of relations with Soviet Russia, which had developed in the joint struggle against the White Guards.

On November 5, 1921, an Agreement on the Establishment of Friendly Relations was signed between the Government of Mongolia and the Government of the RSFSR. By the agreement, both states mutually recognized their governments as the only legitimate ones, which was an example of the recognition of governments according to the traditional form of de jure. Thus, Soviet Russia recognized Mongolia as an independent state and established diplomatic relations with it at the level of plenipotentiary missions.

However, the position of Soviet Russia regarding Mongolia was closely related to the “Chinese factor.” On May 31, 1924, an agreement was signed in Beijing general principles to resolve issues between the USSR and China, Article 5 of which stated: “The Government of the USSR recognizes that Outer Mongolia is an integral part of the Republic of China and respects the sovereignty of China.” Under these conditions, the Mongolian leadership took urgent measures aimed at strengthening the country's state independence. On June 15, 1924, the establishment of a republican system in the country was announced. The First Great People's Khural, held in November 1924, adopted the Constitution of the country and legislatively established the republican system, independence and sovereignty of the Mongolian People's Republic. Therefore, the decision of the Crimean Conference to maintain the status quo of the MPR was of great international significance.

Recognition of the state independence of the MPR by the states of the Allied Powers was the result of the fact that Mongolia, from the first days of the World War, resolutely stood on the side of the Allied Powers.

The defeat and surrender of Nazi Germany did not yet end the Second World War. In the Far East, in the Pacific Ocean, Germany's ally, militaristic Japan, continued to conduct military operations. The Second World War could not end without the defeat of the militaristic forces of Japan.

By decision of the Crimean Conference, the Allied Powers began preparing for war against Japan. On June 26, 1945, the governments of the United States, England and China sent an ultimatum to Japan, which went down in history as the Potsdam Declaration.” However, the Japanese government not only rejected the Potsdam Declaration, but also continued its policy of prolonging the war. In the spring and summer of 1945, general mobilization into the armed forces was carried out in Japan, Korea and Manchukuo.

By the beginning of August 1945, near the border of the Soviet Union and the Mongolia, the Japanese command concentrated a large strategic group of Japanese troops. The Soviet Union, based on its obligations adopted at the Crimean Conference, declared war on Japan on August 8, 1945. On August 10, 1945, the Presidium of the Small Khural and the Government of the MPR announced that the MPR declared war on Japan.

The combat operations of the Soviet army against Japanese troops unfolded simultaneously on a front length of about 5 thousand km. The battles were attended by troops of the Transbaikal, 1st and 2nd Far Eastern Fronts, as well as the river, sea and air military forces of the USSR in the Far East. From August 9 to August 23, the Soviet army completely defeated Japanese troops and liberated Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Southern Sakhalin and the islands of Syumushu and Paramushir from the Kuril Islands group.

Meeting of Russian and Mongolian veterans of Khalkhin Gol, Ulaanbaatar

The Soviet Union played a major role in the defeat of Japanese militarism and won a decisive victory in the defeat of the Kwantung Army. It must be emphasized that the naval blockade and massive aerial bombing by the United States played an important role in the defeat of Japan. The troops of the Mongolian Army carried out operations in close cooperation with the troops of the Trans-Baikal Front.

4 cavalry divisions, an armored brigade, an air division and a communications regiment of the Mongolian Army opposed Japan in two main directions: Dolonnor-Zhehe and Kalgan. In the first week of the war, the troops of the Mongolian army marched 450 km, liberating the city of Dolonnor and other cities and villages. The units that liberated the city of Zhanbei took the fortification on the Kalgan Pass in fierce battles on August 19-21. Having overcome enormous difficulties, the army fought closer to the sea. For the first time in the 20th century, the armed forces of Mongolia, together with Soviet troops, conducted military operations on the territory of another state, liberating the peoples of China from the enslavement of Japanese invaders.

On September 2, 1945, in Tokyo Bay, on board the American battleship Missouri, the Japanese side signed an act of unconditional surrender, which meant the end of World War II. Thus, during the Second World War, the MPR took a firm and principled position on the side of the United Nations.

The fact that during the Second World War the Mongolian people consistently and steadily fought against fascism and militarism, for peace and freedom of peoples, favored the further strengthening of the sovereignty of the Mongolian People's Republic.

As a result of the exchange of special notes between the foreign ministers of China and the USSR and negotiations held in August 1945 in Moscow between the delegations of the Soviet Union and China, the government of the latter agreed to recognize the Mongolian People's Republic as a sovereign and independent state within the then existing borders after holding a plebiscite in the MPR .

Due to the fact that 100 percent of the votes of citizens who took part in the national plebiscite were cast for the state independence of the Mongolian People's Republic, on January 5, 1946, the Chinese government was forced to recognize the independence of the Mongolian People's Republic. On February 13, 1946, diplomatic relations were established between both states.

In February 1946, a Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance was concluded between the MPR and the USSR. At the same time, an Agreement on Economic and Cultural Cooperation was signed between the MPR and the USSR. The Treaty and Agreement served as the basis for all subsequent agreements between the MPR and the USSR and determined the development of Mongolian-Soviet cooperation for an entire historical period until the conclusion of a new treaty in 1966.

In order to have the opportunity within the UN to fight together with all peace-loving states for a constructive solution to pressing international problems in the interests of world peace, the Government of the Mongolian People's Republic, starting in June 1946, repeatedly applied for admission to the United Nations. Emphasizing the active participation of Mongolia in the Second World War, the Government of the MPR, in its address to the UN Secretary-General, stated its confidence that “neither the Security Council nor the General Assembly will forget about this participation of the Mongolian people in the common cause of the United Nations and will treat favorably application of the Mongolian People's Republic for its admission to the UN."

It must be emphasized that the legitimate request of the MPR met with sympathy and approval from the majority of UN members. All this was a major victory for the consistent foreign policy of the MPR, the result of the unyielding will of the Mongolian people for an independent state existence. The MPR emerged from World War II politically stronger, the prestige and authority of the Mongolian state increased, and its international position strengthened.

Lesson topic : CHINA. MONGOLIA

Goals :

Educational : show the features of the political and socio-economic development of China and Mongolia after the Second World War; identify the causes of political confrontation in Chinese society and the victory of the Communists; characterize the domestic and foreign policies of Mao Zedong; show the successes of economic development of modern China and its role in the modern world.

Developmental : development of an analytical approach to assessing the historical development of these states.

Educational : fostering respect for national traditions and customs of all peoples.

Lesson type : combined

M/equipment : table, diagram, political map of the world.

DURING THE CLASSES

I.Org/moment

II. Updating knowledge/

How did Iran develop after World War II?

What is the “white revolution”? Describe her.

Tell us about the establishment of the Islamic Republic and the development of Iran at the end of the 20th century.

Describe the political and economic situation in Afghanistan after World War II.

What has changed in the social development of the country after the proclamation of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan? Why did the USSR send troops to Afghanistan?

What is the situation in Afghanistan at the present stage?

III. Formation of new training centers

The first question begins with a description of China, which at the end of World War II was under the control of two major political groups (use map).

The second question reveals the essence of the “Great Leap Forward” policy adopted in 1938.

Filling out the table

Years

Tasks

“big

jump"

Policy

“cultural

revolution"

Controversies

Events

“cultural

revolution"

An overview of China's domestic and foreign policies in the 80s and the modern period is made. The essence of popular movements and student protests in Beijing and other cities in 1989-1990 is revealed. The student movements were suppressed by the army, reforms continued, and the internal situation stabilized. In foreign policy, the leadership of the PRC in 1979 complicated relations with Vietnam. Pay attention to the relationship with the USSR and Kazakhstan.

IV. Reflection/ Place the following events on the “time line”:

a) announcement of the formation of the People's Republic of China;

b) the Constitution of the People's Republic of China was adopted;

c) the beginning of the “cultural revolution” in China;

d) conflict between China and Vietnam;

e) friendly relations were established between the USSR and the PRC;

f) additional agreements on the border between Kazakhstan and China.

V . Lesson summary IN

VI. D/Z § 27, d/m biography of J. Nehru.______________________________________________

The content of the article

MONGOLIA(from 1924 to 1992 - Mongolian People's Republic), a state in East Asia. It borders on China in the east, south and west, and Russia in the north. Once called Outer Mongolia, the country occupies approximately half of the vast historical region that was once called Mongolia. This area is the homeland of the Mongol peoples, who created here in the 13th century. powerful empire. From the end of the 17th century. to the beginning of the 20th century. Mongolia was a vassal state of Qing China. In the 20th century Mongolia became the target of rivalry between China and the Soviet Union. In July 1921, a popular revolution took place in Mongolia and the country was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Part of historical Mongolia called Inner Mongolia, currently an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China.

see also Below is the HISTORY OF MONGOLIA section.

Geographical characteristics.

Terrain.

Mongolia has an area of ​​1566.5 thousand square meters. km and is basically a plateau raised to a height of 900–1500 m above sea level. A series of mountain ranges and ridges rise above this plateau. The highest of them is the Mongolian Altai, which stretches in the west and southwest of the country for a distance of 900 km. Its continuation are lower ridges that do not form a single massif, collectively called the Gobi Altai.

Along the border with Siberia in the north-west of Mongolia there are several ranges that do not form a single massif: Khan Huhei, Ulan Taiga, Eastern Sayan, in the north-east - the Khentei mountain range, in the central part of Mongolia - the Khangai massif, which is divided into several independent ranges.

To the east and south of Ulaanbaatar towards the border with China, the height of the Mongolian plateau gradually decreases, and it turns into plains - flat and level in the east, hilly in the south. The south, southwest and southeast of Mongolia are occupied by the Gobi Desert, which continues into north-central China. In terms of landscape characteristics, the Gobi desert is by no means homogeneous; it consists of areas of sandy, rocky, covered with small fragments of stones, flat for many kilometers and hilly, different in color - the Mongols especially distinguish the Yellow, Red and Black Gobi. Land-based water sources are very rare here, but groundwater levels are high.

The rivers of Mongolia are born in the mountains. Most of them are the headwaters of the great rivers of Siberia and the Far East, carrying their waters towards the Arctic and Pacific oceans. The largest rivers in the country are the Selenga (within the borders of Mongolia - 600 km), Kerulen (1100 km), Onon (300 km), Khalkhin Gol, Kobdo, etc. The deepest is the Selenga. It originates from one of the Khangai ridges and receives several large tributaries - Orkhon, Khanui-gol, Chulutyn-gol, Delger-muren, etc. Its flow speed is from 1.5 to 3 m per second. In any weather, its fast, cold waters, flowing in the clay-sandy shores, and therefore always muddy, have a dark gray color. The Selenga freezes for six months, the average ice thickness is from 1 to 1.5 m. It has two floods a year: spring (snow) and summer (rain). The average depth at the lowest water level is not lower than 2 m. Having left Mongolia, the Selenga flows through the territory of Buryatia and flows into Baikal.

Rivers in the western and southwestern parts of the country, flowing from the mountains, end up in intermountain basins, have no outlet to the ocean and, as a rule, end their journey in one of the lakes.

Mongolia has over a thousand permanent lakes and a much larger number of temporary lakes that form during the rainy season and disappear during the dry season. In the early Quaternary period, a significant part of the territory of Mongolia was an inland sea, which was later divided into several large bodies of water. The current lakes are what remains of them. The largest of them are located in the basin of the Great Lakes in the north-west of the country - Uvsu-nur, Khara-Us-nur, Khirgis-nur, their depth does not exceed several meters. In the east of the country there are lakes Buyr-nur and Khukh-nur. In a giant tectonic depression in the north of Khangai there is Lake Khubsugul (depth up to 238 m), similar to Baikal in water composition, relict flora and fauna.

Climate.

Mongolia has a sharply continental climate with harsh winters and dry, hot summers. In the capital, the city of Ulaanbaatar, located approximately midway between the mountain ranges of the north-west and the desert arid zone of the south-east of the country, the temperature in January averages -23° C, and in July +17° C. If in the north-west While 250–510 mm of precipitation falls annually, in Ulaanbaatar it is only 230–250 mm; even less precipitation falls in the Gobi desert region.

Vegetable world.

The natural vegetation of Mongolia corresponds to local climatic conditions. The mountains in the northwestern part of the country are covered with forests of larch, pine, cedar, and various deciduous tree species. In the wide intermountain basins there are magnificent pastures. The river valleys have fertile soil, and the rivers themselves abound in fish. As you move to the southeast, with decreasing altitude, the density of vegetation cover gradually decreases and reaches the level of the Gobi desert region, where only in spring and early summer some types of grasses and shrubs appear. The vegetation of the north and northeast of Mongolia is incomparably richer, since these areas with higher mountains receive more precipitation. In general, the composition of the flora and fauna of Mongolia is very diverse. The nature of Mongolia is beautiful and diverse. In the direction from north to south, six natural belts and zones successively change here. The high-mountain belt is located north and west of Lake Khubsugul, on the Khentei and Khangai ridges, in the Mongolian Altai mountains. The mountain-taiga belt passes in the same place, below the alpine meadows. The zone of mountain steppes and forests in the Khangai-Khentei mountain region is the most favorable for human life and the most developed in terms of agricultural development. The largest in size is the steppe zone with its variety of grasses and wild cereals, most suitable for cattle breeding. Water meadows are common in river floodplains.

The fauna of each zone is specific: in the alpine zone - mountain sheep, mountain goat, leopard predator; in the forest - elk, deer, wild deer, musk deer, lynx, wolverine, wild cat manul, brown bear; in the mountain-steppe - wolf, fox, hare, wild boar; in the steppe - gazelle antelope, tarbagan marmot and other smaller rodents, partridges and other game birds, birds of prey. Semi-deserts and deserts are much poorer in flora and fauna, however, large representatives of the animal world also live here: the wild ass kulan, the gazelle antelope, which is less whimsical than the gazelle, the Gobi bear, the Przewalski's horse, and the wild camel.

Population.

More than 90% of the country's population are Mongols (northern and western) and merged groups of non-Mongolian origin who speak the Mongolian language. The Northern Mongols are the Khalkhas (Khalkhas, Khalkha Mongols), the Western Mongols are the Oirats (Derbets, Zakhchins, Olets, Tumets, Myangats, Torguts, Khoshuts). This also includes the Buryats, Barguts (Shine-Barga) and Dariganga, who speak languages ​​of the Mongolian group. Non-Mongols by origin are formerly Turkic-speaking Khotons, Darkhats, Uriankhians and Tsaatans, as well as Tungus - Khamnigans. Today, all of them form ethnographic groups within the Mongols and have practically lost their language and national specificity. Less than 10% of the population are Russians, Chinese and Kazakhs, who retain their language, national culture and way of life.

According to the latest census of 1989, 2,434 thousand people lived in Mongolia. As of July 2004 (according to data published on the Internet), the population of Mongolia was 2,751 thousand. The reason for the decline in population can be seen in several factors: the resettlement of a large number of Kazakhs from Mongolia to the Republic of Kazakhstan, the decline in the birth rate (21.44 per 1,000 inhabitants) at present , high mortality (7.1 per 1000 inhabitants), especially among newborns (55.45 per 1000 births).

Mongolia is a sparsely populated country with centuries-old traditions of nomadism. Accelerated urbanization in the post-war period was facilitated by a general increase in population and industrial development. By the early 1990s, 3/5 of the country's population became city dwellers. The number of inhabitants of Ulaanbaatar (formerly Urga), the capital and only large city of Mongolia, increased from 70 thousand in 1950 to 550 thousand in 1990. In Darkhan, a large industrial center built in the 1960s north of Ulan -Bator, in 1990 there were 80 thousand people. Other important cities in the country include the trade and transport center of Sukhbaatar located north of Ulaanbaatar, near the border with Russia, the new construction city of Erdenet, which grew up around a copper-molybdenum mining and processing plant, Choibalsan in the east, Ulyasutai and Kobdo in the west of Mongolia .

Language.

The Mongolian language belongs to the Mongolian group of the Altai macrofamily of languages. The latter also includes the Turkic and Tungus-Manchu language groups. Perhaps the Korean language belongs to the same macrofamily. The official language of Mongolia is based on the Khalkha dialect, which is spoken by the majority of the country's population. Several types of Mongolian writing are known. The oldest of them - Old Mongolian, or classical writing - was created in the 13th century. based on the Uyghur alphabet. With some changes made in the 17th century, it existed until the mid-20th century. During the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), the so-called. “square script” based on the syllable signs of the Tibetan alphabet. In the 17th century The Oirat enlightener Zaya-Pandita created a “clear letter” (tod bichg), known in science as the Oirat script. It also did not become widespread. Another type of writing called Soyombo was invented at the end of the 17th century. the head of the Buddhist community of Mongolia, Undur Gegen, but he also did not receive recognition and quickly went out of circulation. From 1942 to 1945, an alphabet based on the Cyrillic alphabet was introduced in Mongolia. Two more letters were added to the letters of the Russian alphabet - fita and izhitsa - to convey the sounds of the front row specific to the Mongolian language. The Mongols still use this script today. In 1990, a decree was adopted on the return to the old Mongolian script, the implementation of which was supposed to take 10 years.

Religion.

The official religion of Mongolia is Buddhism. As in every country, it has national specifics here. Buddhism was spread in Mongolia by Tibetan missionaries. The first attempt to introduce Buddhism was made by them in the 2nd half of the 13th century. under Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai, however, at that time Buddhism was accepted only by the imperial court and several other representatives of the Mongol aristocracy. The second attempt was more successful - at the end of the 16th century. In 1578, a congress of all the princes of Mongolia, with the participation of the head of the most significant Gelug Buddhist school in Tibet at that time, decided to adopt Buddhism as the state religion. The first Buddhist monastery was built in 1588; by the beginning of the 20th century. there were approx. 750. Mongolian, as well as Tibetan, Buddhism is characterized by an extremely high saturation of its practice with pre-Buddhist beliefs, rituals and ideas, the institution of “living gods” (the incarnation of the gods of the pantheon into the bodies of living people) and recognition of the important role of monasticism in achieving “salvation”. The latter concept resulted in a high percentage of monks in the country (40% of the male population, about 100 thousand people); in each family, one of the sons would certainly become Buddhist monk. Buddhist monasteries acted as the main centers of sedentary life. They owned huge herds, received considerable funds in the form of feudal rent and voluntary donations from believers, and were also engaged in trade and usury. In 1921, the People's Revolution was victorious in Mongolia. After the death of Bogdo Gegen, the “living god” and theocratic head of state, in 1924, local monks, and religion in general, began to gradually lose their former influence and authority. The anti-clerical and anti-religious attitude of the country's communist leadership accelerated this process. By the end of the 1930s, all monasteries were closed and destroyed, most of the monks were repressed. As a result of political and social reforms begun in Mongolia in 1986, most official restrictions on the practice of religion were eliminated. A revival of Buddhism has been taking place in the country since the late 1980s. During this time, a number of Buddhist monasteries, previously used as museums, were reopened, and restoration of other old monastic complexes began. At the moment there are already more than 200 of them.

Along with Buddhism, shamanism continued to persist in the remote regions of Mongolia.

In the early 1990s, several Christian denominations from Great Britain and the United States established their own small communities in Mongolia.

State structure.

The current constitution of Mongolia came into force in February 1992. It guarantees the fundamental rights of citizens of the Mongolian People's Republic, including freedom of conscience and political opinion. According to the constitution, the head of state is the president, and the highest legislative body is the unicameral State Great Khural. The President is elected for a 5-year term by popular vote, from among candidates nominated by members of the State Great Khural. The country's highest legislative body consists of 75 members elected by popular vote for 5 years. The judicial system is headed by the Supreme Court; Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the State Great Khural.

Until 1990, all issues of the country's political, economic and social life were resolved under the direct leadership of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), the local analogue of the CPSU. In 1990, in the face of massive popular demonstrations and calls for democracy, the MPRP abandoned its monopoly on power and agreed to the formation of opposition political parties, as well as the holding of the first multi-party elections in the country's history. Currently, all significant parties and movements are represented in the Mongolian parliament. The country is ruled by the second president since the beginning of democratic reforms.

Before World War II, except for relations with the former Soviet Union, Mongolia was almost completely isolated from the rest of the world. The country joined the United Nations in 1961. In the 1960s, the process of establishing diplomatic relations with developed capitalist countries - Great Britain (1963), France (1965), Japan (1972), etc. began. Diplomatic relations with the United States were established in 1987.

Political parties.

From July 1996 to July 2000, the country was governed by a coalition of new parties that won the parliamentary elections in June 1996. The largest in the coalition was the National Democratic Party (NDP), formed in 1992 on the basis of the merger of a number of liberal and conservative parties and groups. In 2001, the NDP was renamed the Democratic Party. The coalition also included the Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP, founded in 1990), the Green Party (ecological) and the Religious Democratic Party (clerical-liberal, founded in 1990).

In the 2000 elections, the previously ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) returned to power. The MPRP was created as the Mongolian People's Party based on the merger in July 1920 of two underground revolutionary circles. The party program adopted at its First Congress in March 1921 was focused on an “anti-imperialist, anti-feudal people's revolution.” Since July 1921, the MPP became the ruling party and established close ties with the Russian communists and the Comintern. The III Congress of the MPP in August 1924 officially proclaimed a course for the transition from feudalism to socialism, “bypassing capitalism,” which was enshrined in the party program adopted at the IV Congress in 1925. In March 1925, the MPP was renamed the MPRP, which turned into the Marxist-Leninist party . The program approved by the Tenth Congress (1940) provided for the transition from the “revolutionary-democratic stage” of development to the socialist one, and the 1966 program envisaged the completion of the “construction of socialism.” However, in the early 1990s, the MPRP officially abandoned Marxism-Leninism and began to advocate a transition to a market economy while maintaining the stability of society and increasing the well-being of the population. New program, adopted in February 1997, defines it as a democratic and socialist party.

In addition to the two main political forces, there are other parties and organizations in Mongolia: the United Party of National Traditions, which united several right-wing groups in 1993, the Alliance of the Motherland (included the Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party and the Mongolian Labor Party), etc.

Economy.

Mongolia's GDP in 2003 was 4.88 billion. US dollars. By sector, Mongolia's GDP is divided as follows: the agricultural share was 20.6%, industry - 21.4%, other services - 58%.

Pasture farming.

Pasture farming continues to be the main economic activity. The destruction of the nomadic way of life began with the Manchus' policy of attaching ethnic groups within the Mongols to certain territories. The catastrophic decline in livestock numbers in the period after 1924, when the influence of the Soviet Union increased in Mongolia, was the result of blindly copying the collectivization policy. Later, a special Mongolian form of collective farming was developed. The lands of each such collective farm were also considered an administrative unit - a district (Mongolian somon). In 1997, the total number of livestock - sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels - was approx. 29.3 million heads, of which 80% are sheep and goats, 11% are cattle. Today, Mongolia is among the leading countries in the world in terms of livestock per capita (approximately 12 heads per person). Significant progress has also been made in livestock breeding and veterinary medicine.

In line with the political and economic changes that began in the countries of the former socialist camp after 1989, Mongolia decided to transition to a market economy. Based on the Foreign Investment Law adopted in 1990, citizens of other countries were able to own shares in various types of enterprises, from firms with 100 percent foreign capital to joint ventures. New laws were passed regarding taxation and banking, credit and debt obligations. In May 1991, the privatization law came into force, according to which state property could pass into the hands of “law-abiding” citizens (i.e. those who have not previously committed serious crimes) permanently residing in the country. Each citizen was given a special investment coupon that could be bought, sold or given to any other person. Holders of such coupons became active participants in special auctions through which state property was privatized. Later, in 1991, “state farms” and cooperative livestock associations were liquidated, and the transfer of land and livestock to private ownership began.

Agriculture.

Agriculture plays a secondary role in the economic life of Mongolia. Various crops are grown in the northern and western parts of the country, some using irrigation. Irrigation systems have been created today in the Gobi. In 1990, the total area of ​​cultivated land was about 827 thousand hectares. Until 1991, the predominant part of these lands was cultivated by large state farms, the rest by cooperative livestock farming associations. The main crop is wheat, although barley, potatoes and oats are also grown. Experimental gardening has existed since the 1950s, and even melon growing in the Trans-Altai Gobi. Procurement of hay and feed for livestock plays a significant role.

Natural resources.

Mongolia is rich in fur-bearing animals (especially many marmots, squirrels, and foxes); in some parts of the country, the fur trade is an important source of income for the population. Fishing is carried out in the lakes and rivers of the northern regions.

Despite the abundance of mineral deposits, their development is still limited. There are 4 brown coal deposits in Mongolia (Nalaikha, Sharyngol, Darkhan, Baganur). In the south of the country, in the area of ​​the Taban Tolgoi mountain range, coal was discovered, the geological reserves of which amount to billions of tons. Average reserves of tungsten and fluorspar deposits have long been known and are being developed. Copper-molybdenum ore found in Treasure Mountain (Erdenetiin ovoo) led to the creation of a mining and processing plant, around which the city of Erdenet was built. Oil was discovered in Mongolia in 1951, after which an oil refinery was built in Sain Shanda, a city southeast of Ulaanbaatar, near the border with China (oil production ceased in the 1970s). Near Lake Khubsugul, gigantic deposits of phosphorites were discovered and their mining even began, but soon, due to environmental considerations, all work was reduced to a minimum. Even before the start of reforms in Mongolia, with the help of the USSR, the search for zeolites, minerals of the aluminosilicate group, which are used in animal husbandry and agriculture as adsorbents and biostimulants, was carried out unsuccessfully.

Industry.

A significant number of manufacturing enterprises are concentrated in Ulaanbaatar, and in the city of Darkhan to the north of the capital there is a coal mining, iron foundry and steel smelting complex. Initially, the local industry was based almost exclusively on the processing of livestock raw materials, and the main types of products were woolen fabrics, felt, leather goods, food products. Many new industrial enterprises appeared in Mongolia after the end of World War II - especially in the 1950s and early 1960s, when the country received significant financial assistance from the Soviet Union and China. In the 1980s, local industry provided approximately 1/3 of Mongolia's national product, while in 1940 it was only 17%. After the end of World War II, the share of heavy industry in total industrial production increased significantly. There are over two dozen cities with enterprises of national importance: in addition to the already mentioned Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan, the largest are Erdenet, Sukhbaatar, Baganur, Choibalsan. Mongolia produces more than a thousand types of industrial and agricultural products, most of which are consumed domestically; furs, wool, leather, leather and fur products, livestock and animal products, phosphorites, fluorites, and molybdenum ore are exported.

Transport.

Only in the middle of the 20th century. Roads (mostly unpaved) were built from Ulaanbaatar to the administrative centers of aimags. The strategic route Naushki - Ulaanbaatar (400 km) became the first tarmac road in Mongolia. In 1949, construction of a section of the railway connecting Ulaanbaatar with the Trans-Siberian Railway on the territory of the Soviet Union was completed. The line was later extended further south, and in 1956 it was connected to the Chinese railway network. Although passing through Mongolian soil Railway served mainly to transport goods between China and the Soviet Union, this highway greatly contributed to the economic development of Mongolia itself. At the end of the 1980s, almost 3/4 of freight transport in the country was carried out by rail.

Air routes connect Mongolia with Russia, China, Vietnam, and Japan. Mongolia's own aircraft fleet is small, and long-distance air routes are served by aircraft from other countries. Mongolia's own aviation has regular air communications with all aimags of the country.

Trade.

Until 1991, more than 90% of Mongolia's foreign trade accounted for the rest of the countries of the socialist community, primarily the Soviet Union. Japan was Mongolia's leading trading partner among capitalist countries. Today, the main Mongolian exports are minerals and metal ores, as well as livestock products. Mainly machinery and equipment, petroleum products, and consumer goods are imported into the country. The monetary unit of Mongolia is the tugrik, and the small change coin is called mungu (1 tugrik contains 100 mungu).

Society.

Since the 17th century. In Mongolia, the principle of two branches of government took shape - secular and religious. The head of secular power, the Kagan, or Great Khan, stood at the head of the Mongol state. The state was divided into several aimaks, the ruler (and therefore the feudal ruler) of each of them was a khan, directly subordinate to the Great Khan. Aimaks were divided into khoshuns headed by noyons (small feudal lords who received their allotment by inheritance) and taishas (who earned their allotments in the public service). Khoshuns were divided into several bugs. All these divisions of the Mongolian state retained a clan-tribal structure, which was later replaced by an ethnic one. Each of the tribes that entered the 13th century. part of the Mongol Empire, was subordinate not only to the Great Khan, but also to its immediate rulers - khans, noyons and taishas, ​​on whom it depended everyday life people.

In wartime, the order established under Genghis Khan was in effect. The entire male adult population was transformed into combat-ready cavalry, which made up two wings: the western (baruun gar) and the eastern (jun gar). Each wing was divided into tumens (10,000 warriors), tumens were divided into 10 myangas (1000 warriors), myangas were divided into hundreds (100 warriors), a hundred into tens. Each unit had its own leader, who was responsible for both morale and the equipment of the riders. The tribal principle of organization was maintained here too; close relatives went into battle shoulder to shoulder, and this made the army even more combat-ready.

Religious power was also built on a hierarchical principle. At its head was the “living god” - Bogdo-gegen, who was chosen as a child as the incarnation of one of the previous “gods”. The next steps were occupied by shiretuis - abbots of monasteries, followed by different categories of lamas who officially accepted monasticism. At the very bottom were the shabiners - serf arats (cattle breeders), whom their khans and noyons donated to Buddhist monasteries.

The traditional way of life of the Mongols corresponds to the geographical features of the territory. Livestock farming provides them with food, clothing, materials for building homes, and fuel. As hereditary nomads, the inhabitants of Mongolia prefer portable dwellings - these are yurts covered with felt felt mats (their Mongolian name is ger), they live in them both in summer and winter; and tents made of light maikhana fabric, which are used by hunters and shepherds driving livestock to summer pastures.

The staple foods of the Mongols include milk, butter, cheese, lamb, as well as barley, flour, millet and tea. The main one is the fermented milk drink airag (better known by the Turkic name “kumys”), which is made from mare’s milk. Thanks to sheep, the Mongols obtain wool, from which they make felts for yurts and sheepskin for sewing warm clothes; have milk, cheese and butter in summer, and lamb in winter; dry sheep, but much more cow manure and droppings are used as fuel. Legends tell about the Mongolian art of horse riding, and horse racing, along with wrestling and archery, is one of the most popular sports in Mongolia. national species sports

Although the majority of the Mongolian population now lives in cities and many people work in various industrial enterprises, the old nomadic traditions are still not forgotten. There are many people in the country who successfully combine traditional and modern ways of life. Many of those who live in comfortable city houses strive to have a summer cottage in the form of a yurt or spend their holidays with relatives in khudon (rural areas). From there, dried or frozen lamb (sometimes whole carcasses), butter, and dry cottage cheese are delivered to city apartments, and they are stored on balconies and in the basements of houses as a supply of food for the winter.

Education.

The education system in Mongolia is controlled by the state. In 1991, 489 thousand students were studying in primary and secondary schools in the country, and the number of students in higher educational institutions was 13,200 people. The Mongolian State University in Ulaanbaatar has faculties of economics, mathematics, natural sciences, physics and social sciences. In addition, the capital has a Technical University, as well as Agricultural and Medical Universities. Special educational institutions include the Higher School of Buddhism, which has existed since 1976, the Art School and the relatively recently created Business School.

HISTORY OF MONGOLIA

The first steps on the path to statehood.

At the beginning of the 12th century. scattered Mongol tribes made the first attempt to unite and create a state that more closely resembled a union of tribes and went down in history under the name Khamag Mongol. Its first ruler was Haidu Khan. His grandson Khabul Khan was already able to win a temporary victory over the neighboring regions of Northern China, and he was bought off with a small tribute. However, his successor Ambagai Khan was captured by the Tatar tribes at war with the Mongols and handed over to the Chinese, who put him to a painful execution. A few years later, the Tatars killed Yesugei-Bagatur, the father of Temujin, the future conqueror of the world Genghis Khan.

Temujin spent his childhood and youth in poverty. He came to power gradually, at first he was given the patronage of Van Khan, the ruler of the Kereits in Central Mongolia. Once Temujin had gained enough followers, he conquered the three most powerful states in Mongolia: the Tatars in the east (1202), his former patrons the Kereits in Central Mongolia (1203), and the Naimans in the west (1204). At the kurultai - a congress of Mongolian tribes in 1206 - he was proclaimed the supreme khan of all the Mongols and received the title of Genghis Khan.

Creation of an empire.

Genghis Khan ruled Mongolia from 1206 to 1227. Having dealt with internal enemies, he began to take revenge on the Jin rulers in Northern China for the humiliations suffered by his ancestors. As a result of three campaigns, he conquered the Tanguts, whose kingdom of Xi-Xia was located between his possessions and the state of Jin. In 1211, the Mongols attacked the Jin state and occupied all the territory north of the Great Wall of China. In 1213 they broke through the Wall and poured into Northern China; by the spring of 1214, the entire territory north of the Yellow River was in the hands of the Mongols. The Jin ruler bought peace by paying a huge ransom, and the Mongols left. Soon after this, it was decided to move the Jin capital from Beijing, which the Mongols interpreted as a resumption of hostilities, again attacked China and ravaged Beijing.

The following year, Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia. Now Central and Western Asia have attracted his attention. The Naiman leader Kuchluk, after the defeat he suffered in 1204, fled to the west and found refuge in the Karakitai state, where he managed to seize the throne. His actions posed a constant threat to the western borders of Genghis Khan's state. In 1218, the Mongol army under the command of the great commander Jebe invaded the lands of the Karakitai. Kuchluk fled to Afghanistan, where he was captured and killed.

Hike to the west.

The conquest of this Central Asian territory gave the Mongols a common border with the Khwarezmshah Muhammad, the ruler of Khwarezm, which lay southeast of the Aral Sea. Muhammad owned a gigantic territory stretching from India to Baghdad and north beyond the Aral Sea. The war was inevitable under all conditions, but it was accelerated by the murder of Genghis Khan's ambassadors.

In the fall of 1219, the Mongols reached the border city of Otrar. Leaving part of the army to besiege the city, Genghis Khan quickly reached the large cities of Bukhara and Samarkand and plundered them. The Sultan fled to Iran in panic, pursued by the Mongol army and eventually he died on one of the islands in the Caspian Sea. Having learned about his death, the Mongols turned north, crossed the Caucasus Mountains, entered the expanses of Rus', defeated the Russian-Polovtsian army on the Kalka River in 1223 and went back to the east.

In the fall of 1220, Genghis Khan began a campaign to the southeast to the lands bordering Afghanistan. He sent his youngest son Tolui to complete the conquest of Khorasan, which was then much larger than the current province of Eastern Iran and included such large cities as Merv, Herat, Balkh and Nishapur. This area was never able to fully recover from the devastation wrought there by the Mongol invasion.

In the fall of 1221, Genghis Khan attacked Jalal ad-Din, the son of Khorezm Shah Muhammad. Pressed with his troops to the Indus, surrounded by the Mongols, Jalal ad-Din threw himself into the river and escaped by crossing to the other bank. For several years he attacked the Mongols until he died in Anatolia in 1231.

Return to the East.

The battle on the banks of the Indus ended Genghis Khan's campaign to the west. Having learned about the unrest among the Tanguts, he turned back, but moved slowly and returned to his headquarters in Mongolia only three years after he left India. The last campaign against the Tanguts ended in their complete defeat. Genghis Khan did not live to see the completion of his last campaign. He died while on holiday at his summer camp on 25 August 1227.

Army.

The Mongols owed their military successes not only to the size of their army, since Genghis Khan’s entire army, apparently, did not exceed 150–250 thousand people. The strength of the Mongol army lay in its organization, discipline and tactics. Discipline made it possible to attack in close formation and thus gain the upper hand over the numerically superior but poorly constructed ranks of the enemy. The standard tactic of the Mongol army was to cover the enemy’s flank with an entire wing of its army to strike from the rear. The papal envoy John of Plano Carpini, who visited the homeland of the Mongols after their invasion of Central Europe in 1240, argued that European princes could not resist a second such invasion unless they borrowed from the enemy his methods of warfare.

The Mongols' great advantage was their mobility. During the campaigns, they brought with them such a number of horses that each warrior could ride a fresh horse every day for three to four days in a row. Once the enemy's initial resistance was broken, the Mongols captured their territory with a speed that would not be matched until the advent of World War II tanks. The widest rivers did not pose a serious obstacle for them; they crossed them in a special kind of folding boats, which they carried with them as standard equipment. Equally, the Mongols were skilled in siege: there was a case when they even diverted a river and rushed into a besieged city along a dry riverbed.

Organization of the empire.

The system of government of the empire was based on a set of laws called Great Yasa. From the surviving fragment of this code of laws, one gets the impression that the yasa was a fusion of Mongol customary law with additions made by Genghis Khan himself. The first include, for example, the prohibition of poking a knife into the fire, so as not to offend the spirit of the hearth. Particularly interesting is the yasa, which exempted the clergy of the conquered peoples from paying taxes, performing military service and forced labor. This situation is in good agreement with the Mongols’ readiness to take into their service officials of all nationalities and beliefs. Genghis Khan himself kept Muslims and Chinese as advisers. His brilliant first minister, Yelu Chutsai, was a representative of one of the aristocratic families of the Khitan. It is believed that it was on his advice that the Mongols stopped the wholesale extermination of the settled population and began to use the talents of the conquered peoples to manage their empire. In Persia, under the Ilkhans, not only Muslims, but also Christians and Jews reached high positions, and during the reign of Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, administrators were recruited throughout the empire and in Europe.

With the exception of the clergy, all conquered peoples, in the interests of collecting taxes and recruiting into the army, were divided into the same tens, hundreds, etc., as the Mongols. Thus, the capitation tax was calculated for ten people at once. The maintenance of each yam, a postal station with a change of horses, was entrusted to two ten-thousandth units, which were responsible for providing the yam with the necessary food, horses and services. The yam system was introduced under Ogedei, the successor of Genghis Khan. Marco Polo describes in great detail this system as he saw it in action in China during the reign of Kublai Kublai. Thanks to this system of changing horses, the Great Khan's couriers could cover up to 400 km of travel per day.

Before his death, Genghis Khan expressed his desire to be succeeded by his third son, Ögedei (r. 1229–1241). The choice turned out to be correct - under the skillful and energetic leadership of Ogedei, the empire flourished and expanded its borders. One of the first decisions of the new khan was to build an imperial capital. In 1235, the city of Karakorum (Kharahorin) was built, located 320 km southwest of the place where Ulaanbaatar is currently located.

All the time that Genghis Khan was on campaign in the west, the war continued in Northern China. At the beginning of 1232, Ogedei and Tolui (the youngest son of Genghis Khan) themselves set out on a campaign. Two years later they achieved their goal: the last emperor of the Jin dynasty fled and subsequently committed suicide.

A trip to Europe.

Another army of Ogedei, under the command of Batu, the son of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, and the commander Subedei, invaded Europe. Mongol troops crossed the Volga in the fall of 1237 and attacked the principalities of Central Rus'. At the beginning of 1238 they turned to the north, but, not reaching 100 km from Novgorod, they retreated to the south, trying to avoid the spring thaw. In the summer of 1240 the Mongols resumed their campaign and in December captured and plundered Kyiv. The path to Central Europe was open.

Until this time, Europe had received the most conflicting reports about the Mongols. The most common version was that it was the powerful ruler of India, King David (some said that he was the king of the Jews) who rose up against the Saracens. Only the invasion of Batu made Europe understand how poorly it knows the real state of affairs. The right flank of Batu's army passed through Poland and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Polish-German forces at the Battle of Liegnitz (Silesia) on April 9, 1241, and then turned south to join the main forces in Hungary. Having won a victory there on April 11, the Mongols became masters of all lands east of the Danube. In December, they crossed the river and invaded Croatia, pursuing the Hungarian king Béla IV, who was fleeing from them. Apparently, the army was already ready to invade Western Europe when a messenger arrived with the news that Ögedei had died in November. In the spring of 1242, Mongol troops left Europe and never returned there.

Empire under the grandchildren of Genghis Khan.

Ogedei's death ushered in an interregnum that lasted almost five years, during which the Merkit khan Turakina, his widow and mother of his son Guyuk, acted as regent. At the same time, the Mongol armies defeated the ruler of the Seljuk Konya Sultanate in northwestern Iran, thus expanding the borders of the empire to the Mediterranean Sea.

At a kurultai meeting near Karakorum in 1246, Guyuk (reigned 1246–1248) was finally elected Great Khan. This kurultai was attended by the Franciscan monk Plano Carpini, who delivered letters from Pope Innocent IV to the Mongol court. Guyuk rudely rejected the pope's protest against the devastation of Poland and Hungary and invited the pope, along with all the crowned heads of Europe, to personally appear before him and take an oath of allegiance to him.

If Guyuk had lived longer, he would not have avoided a civil war with his cousin Batu. Guyuk served under Batu during the campaign against Rus', but quarreled with him and left for Mongolia before the invasion of Central Europe. At the beginning of 1248, Guyuk set out from Karakorum, apparently intending to attack Batu, but died on the way.

After the death of Guyuk, as after the death of his father, a long period of interregnum began. The widow Ogul-Gamish became the ruler-regent of the empire. Batu, the eldest of the Mongol khans, convened a kurultai to choose Guyuk's successor. The Kurultai elected Möngke (r. 1251–1259), grandson of Genghis Khan, son of Tolui, conqueror of Merv and Nishapur. Due to the opposition of Guyuk's sons and their supporters, the ceremony of the Great Khan's accession to the throne took place only in 1251. At the same time, a conspiracy against the newly elected Great Khan was discovered, and the conspirators were expelled or executed. Among those executed was the former regent. Ogedei's grandson Haidu fled to Central Asia, where throughout his long life he remained the greatest enemy of the great khans. This is how the first of the splits occurred among the descendants of Genghis Khan, which ultimately led to the death of the Mongol Empire.

For the first time after the death of Ogedei, the Mongols could think about new conquests. In 1253, Kublai Khan, the brother of the Great Khan, invaded the Song dynasty in southern China, and his other brother, Hulagu, went on a campaign to the west, ending with the sack of Baghdad. In the fall of 1258, Mongke himself led a campaign against the Song Empire, during which he died in August 1259, leading the siege of one of the cities.

Mongke's death meant the virtual end of the unified Mongol Empire. His brother Khubilai and Khubilai's successor Temür still bore the title of Great Khan, but the Empire had already begun to disintegrate into separate states.

YUAN DYNASTY IN CHINA (1271–1368)

The Yuan, or Mongol dynasty in China was made famous by its founder Kublai Kublai (r. 1260–1294). Kublai ruled as both the Great Khan and Emperor of China. The Golden Horde, founded by Batu, finally separated from the Mongol Empire, but Khubilai continued to be recognized as the Great Khan in Iran and, to a certain extent, in Central Asia. In Mongolia, he suppressed the rebellion of his brother Arig-Bug, who claimed the throne, and kept his sworn enemy Haida, heir to the overthrown house of Ogedei, at bay.

In China, Khubilai did much more. In 1271 he proclaimed the new Chinese Yuan dynasty. The long-term war with the Song dynasty from Southern China ended victoriously in 1276 with the capture of the Song Emperor by Kublai's commander Bayan, although the Guangzhou region held out until 1279. For the first time in 300 years, China was united under a single ruler; Korea and Tibet became submissive tributaries, the Thai tribes (later founding Siam) were driven from their land in southern China, and the countries of Southeast Asia were reduced to the position of at least nominal vassals.

Overseas campaigns were not so successful. An army sent to the island of Java, deceived by the local ruler, the cunning prince Vijaya, defeated the enemy troops, after which Vijaya forced his hapless allies to leave the island, exhausting them with guerrilla warfare. The attempted invasion of Japan had catastrophic consequences. In 1284, a typhoon, known in Japanese history as the “Wind of the Gods” (kamikaze), sank the Mongol armada, and the Japanese captured or killed almost the entire Chinese army of 150 thousand people.

Domestically, Kublai's rule was marked by peace, flourishing trade, religious tolerance, and cultural expansion. An important source of information about this period are the notes of the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who served at the court of the Great Khan.

Decline and expulsion of the Yuan dynasty.

Temür, grandson of Kublai Kublai (r. 1294–1307), inherited some of his grandfather's abilities, but after his death the dynasty began to decline. His successors failed to accomplish anything significant due to constant dynastic strife. The last Mongol emperor of China, Toghon Temur, reigned from 1333 to 1368; only Kublai Kublai was in power longer than him. Endless intrigues and infighting among the Mongol nobility led to numerous rebellions, and by the end of 1350 most of Southern China fell into the hands of partisan leaders. One of them was a peasant son and former Buddhist monk named Zhu Yuanzhang, the future emperor and founder of the Ming dynasty. Having defeated his rivals and seized their possessions, Zhu by 1368 became the ruler of all China south of the Yangtze. The infighting Mongols did not seem to react to the loss of this vast area and did not put up any effective resistance when Zhu moved his army north in 1368. Togon Temur fled, and Zhu's troops triumphantly entered his capital. Toghon Temur died in exile in 1370.

THE GOLDEN HORDE IN THE RUSSIAN LANDS (1242–1502)

Batu (Batu). Genghis Khan gave his eldest son, Jochi, a vast ulus without clear boundaries, stretching from the eastern outskirts of present-day Kazakhstan to the banks of the Volga. After Jochi's death in 1227, the eastern part of the ulus in Western Siberia (later called the White Horde) went to his eldest son. Batu (r. 1242–1255), second son of Jochi, inherited the western part of the ulus, which included Khorezm and the southern Russian steppes.

Returning from a campaign in Hungary in 1242, Batu founded the Khanate, which later became known as the Golden Horde (from the Turkic-Mongolian “horde”, “camp”, “station”, “camp”). The Kipchak Turks, who had inhabited this region for a long time, mixed with the conquerors, and their language gradually replaced Mongolian.

The ruler of the Russian principalities, Batu, lived on the eastern bank of the Volga, in the summer he went down the river and spent the winter at the mouth of the river, where he built his capital Sarai. Plano Carpini and another monk, William of Rubruk, both of whom visited Batu during his trip to Mongolia and on the way back, left detailed descriptions of his court.

Batu is believed to have died in 1255. After the short reign of his two sons, Batu was succeeded by his brother Berke (ruled 1258–1266).

Wars with the "Persian" Mongols.

Unlike his brother, who remained faithful to the religion of his ancestors, Berke converted to Islam. His conversion explains his hostility to the “Persian” Mongols, who destroyed the Arab Caliphate and remained for the most part shamanists, Buddhists or Nestorians. He was equally hostile to his cousin, the Great Khan Kublai, and supported the claims to the throne of Kublai's rivals, Arigh Bugh and Khaidu.

However, Berke's main focus was on the war with his cousin Hulagu, the first Ilkhan of Persia. Apparently, at first, luck favored the “Persian” Mongols, who approached the southern outskirts of Sarai. Here they were defeated by the Golden Horde and suffered heavy losses during their retreat. The war flared up sporadically until Bärke's death in 1266.

Independent development of the Golden Horde.

Berke's nephew and successor Mongke Temur (reigned 1266–1280), unlike his predecessors, maintained good relations with the Russian vassals. In accordance with Great Yasa, a set of laws of Genghis Khan, he issued a decree exempting the Orthodox clergy from taxes and military service.

Munke Temur's cousin and Berke's cousin, Nogai Khan, even before the start of the wars with the Persian Mongols, went on campaigns against Byzantium. Now, having become the son-in-law of the Byzantine emperor and the de facto ruler of the Lower Danube region, Nogai, after the death of Mongke-Temur, represented the most powerful figure in the Golden Horde. But Nogai was eventually captured and killed by his rival Tokta.

The remainder of Toqta's (d. 1312) reign was relatively calm. His nephew and successor Uzbek (ruled 1313–1342) was a Muslim, and under him Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. The long and generally prosperous reign of Uzbek is considered the golden age of the Golden Horde Mongols. Soon after the death of Uzbek, a period of anarchy began, during which the military leader Mamai became the true ruler of the Golden Horde, playing approximately the same role as Nogai in the previous generation. During this period, the struggle of the Russian people against the Tatar yoke began. Mamai was defeated by the Grand Duke of Moscow and Vladimir Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field in 1380.

Tokhtamysh and Tamerlane (Timur).

Taking advantage of the Russian victories, Khan of the White Horde Tokhtamysh invaded the Golden Horde in 1378 and captured Sarai. The decisive battle between Mamai and Tokhtamysh took place in the Crimea and ended in the complete victory of the White Horde. Mamai hid in a Genoese trading post, where he was killed. Having become the ruler of the Golden and White Horde, Tokhtamysh again reduced the Russians to his vassals and tributaries, plundering Moscow in 1382.

It seemed that the Golden Horde had never been so strong. However, by invading Transcaucasia and Central Asia, Tokhtamysh made an enemy in the person of the great Central Asian conqueror Tamerlane (Timur), who had recently been his patron. By 1390 Tamerlane had captured the territory from India to the Caspian Sea. He helped Tokhtamysh come to power in the White Horde, but when Tokhtamysh encroached on his lands, Tamerlane decided to put an end to him. In the battle of 1391, one of Tokhtamysh’s armies was defeated; in February 1395, Tamerlane crossed the Caucasus, finished off the remnants of Tokhtamysh's troops, pushed the enemy to the north, and on the way back devastated the lands of the Golden Horde.

After Tamerlane left for Central Asia, Tokhtamysh regained his throne, but in 1398 he was expelled by his rival from the White Horde. He was sheltered by the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who acted on his behalf, but was defeated. Pursued by enemies, Tokhtamysh fled to Siberia, where in the winter of 1406–1407 he was captured and killed.

Disintegration of the Horde.

The final collapse of the Golden Horde began with the separation of the Kazan and Crimean Khanates from it in the mid-15th century. In alliance with these khanates, Grand Duke Ivan III of Moscow (r. 1462–1505) managed to isolate the Golden Horde, after which he refused to pay tribute to Khan Akhmat (r. 1460–1481). In 1480 Akhmat moved to Moscow. For several months, the opposing armies stood against each other, without engaging in battle, on the Ugra River, then in the fall Akhmat retreated. This meant the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'. The Golden Horde itself survived him by only a few years. She received a fatal blow in 1502 from the Crimean Khan, who burned Sarai. The successor states of the Golden Horde, the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates on the Middle and Lower Volga, were captured by Russia under Ivan the Terrible in 1552 and 1556. The Crimean Khanate, becoming a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, lasted until 1783 and was also annexed to Russia.

ILKHANS IN PERSIA (1258–1334)

Conquests of Hulagu.

By the middle of the 13th century. The Mongols controlled almost the entire territory of Persia. Having defeated the Assassins, adherents of a sect of fanatical opponents of orthodox Islam, Hulagu, brother of the Great Khan Mongke, was able to start a war with the Arab Caliphate itself. From his headquarters, he sent a demand to the Caliph, the religious head of Islam, to surrender, but received no response. In November 1257, the Mongol offensive began on Baghdad. In February 1258, Caliph al-Musta'sim surrendered to the mercy of the winner, and Baghdad was plundered and destroyed. Al-Mustasim was wrapped in felt and trampled to death: the Mongols were superstitiously afraid of shedding royal blood. Thus ended the history of the Arab Caliphate, which began in the 7th century.

Having captured Baghdad, Hulagu withdrew north to Azerbaijan, the seat of his Persian dynasty of Ilkhans ("khans of the tribe"). From Azerbaijan in 1259 he set out on a campaign against Syria. Soon Damascus and Aleppo fell, and the conquerors reached the border of Egypt. Here Hulagu received the news of the death of the Great Khan Mongke. Leaving his commander Ked-Bug in Syria with a much smaller army, Hulagu turned back. The Egyptian commander Baybars (“Panther”), most likely of Polovtsian origin, who at one time was sold into slavery in Egypt, where he made a career in the Mamluk army, spoke out against the Mongols. The Mamluks defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in Palestine. Ked-Bug was captured and executed. All of Syria up to the Euphrates was annexed to Mamluk Egypt.

Ilkhans after Hulagu.

Hulagu's son and successor Abaka Khan (r. 1265–1282) continued a low-intensity war with Berke, ending with the latter's death. In the east, he repelled the invasion of Borak, the ruler of the Chagatai ulus in Central Asia. His wars with the Mamluks were less successful; the Mongol army that invaded Syria was defeated and retreated beyond the Euphrates.

In 1295, Ghazan Khan, grandson of Abak Khan (r. 1295–1304), took the throne, beginning his short but brilliant reign. Ghazan Khan not only accepted Islam, but made it the state religion. Ghazan Khan showed a keen interest in the history and traditions of his people and was considered a great authority in these matters. On his advice, his vizier, the historian Rashid ad-Din, wrote his famous work Jami at-Tawarikh(Collection of chronicles), an extensive historical encyclopedia.

The last rulers of the Ilkhan dynasty were Ulzeytu (r. 1304–1316) and Abu Said (r. 1304–1316). After them, a period of fragmentation began in the country, when local dynasties came to power in its various parts, swept away by the end of the century by the invasion of Tamerlane. The reign of the Ilkhans was marked by the flourishing of Persian culture. Architecture and art reached a high level of development, and poets of that era, such as Saadi and Jalaleddin Rumi, went down in history as classics of world literature.

CHAGATAY ULUS IN CENTRAL ASIA

To his second son Chagatai, a recognized expert in Mongolian law, Genghis Khan gave lands stretching from Eastern Xinjiang to Samarkand, called the Chagatai ulus. Chagatai himself and his first successors continued to lead the nomadic lifestyle of their ancestors in the steppes of the eastern part of their possessions, while the main cities in the west were under the jurisdiction of the great khans.

The Chagatai ulus was probably the weakest of the successor states of the Mongol Empire. The Great Khans (even Khubilai's opponent Haidu, until his death in 1301) imprisoned and removed Chagatai khans at their discretion. In 1347, Kazan, the last ruler of Transoxiana from the house of Chagatai, died in a battle with the army of the Turkic nobility, which, until the rise of Tamerlane, actually ruled in Transoxiana - the region of the right bank of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya basin.

Tamerlane (Timur) (1336–1405) was born in the vicinity of Samarkand. He achieved power through a combination of treachery and military genius. Unlike the methodical and persistent collector of the state of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane collected wealth. As one might expect, after his death the state collapsed.

In the eastern part of the Chagatai ulus, the Chagataids managed to survive the invasion of Tamerlane and retained power until the 16th century. In Transoxiana itself, Tamerlane's successors did not last long and were driven out by the Shaybanids, another branch of the house of Genghis Khan. Their ancestor Sheiban, Batu’s brother, took part in the campaign against Hungary, after which he took possession of an ulus east of the Ural Mountains. In the 14th century The Shaybanids migrated to the southeast and filled the vacuum left by the White Horde, leading an alliance of tribes that had been called the Uzbeks since the reign of the Golden Horde Khan Uzbek (1312–1342). During this period, the Kazakhs, a group that broke away from the Uzbeks, first appeared.

In 1500, the Uzbek Khan Muhammad Sheybani captured Transoxiana and founded the Bukhara Khanate. Babur, the great-grandson of Tamerlane, fled over the mountains to India, where he founded the Mughal dynasty, which ruled almost the entire subcontinent from 1526 until the British conquest of India in the 18th and 19th centuries. Various dynasties succeeded in the Bukhara Khanate, until in 1920 the last khan was deposed by the Soviet authorities.

LATE MONGOL STATES

Western Mongols (Oirats).

The descendants of Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan, expelled from China in 1368, returned to their homeland and found themselves under the rule of other Mongol tribes, the Oirats. Having defeated Uldziy-Temur, the great-great-grandson of the last Yuan emperor, the Oirats struck to the west in 1412, where they defeated the eastern Chagataids. The Oirat ruler Esen Khan owned a vast territory stretching from Lake Balkhash, and in the south to the Great Wall of China. Having been refused a marriage with a Chinese princess, he overcame the Wall, defeated the Chinese and captured the Chinese Emperor. The state he created did not survive him for long. After the death of Esen Khan in 1455, the heirs quarreled, and the Eastern Mongols pushed them west, uniting again under the supremacy of Dayan Khan.

Khoshuty.

One of the Oirat tribes, the Khoshuts, settled in 1636 in the area of ​​Lake Kukunar, in what is now the Chinese province of Qinghai. Here they were destined to play decisive role in the history of neighboring Tibet. Gushi Khan, the ruler of the Khoshuts, was converted to Buddhism by the Tibetan Gelug school or, as it was also called, “Yellow Caps” (based on the color of the hats worn by the clergy of this school). At the request of the head of the Gelug school, the 5th Dalai Lama, Gushi Khan captured the head of the rival Sakya school and in 1642 declared the 5th Dalai Lama the sovereign ruler of all Buddhists in central Tibet, becoming the secular ruler under him until his death in 1656.

Torguts, Derbets, Khoyts and their descendants Kalmyks.

During the 16th – early 17th centuries. The Western Mongols, forced out of their lands by their neighbors, the Chinese from the south, the Mongols from the east, and the Kazakhs from the west, began searching for new territories. Having received permission from the Russian Tsar, they came to Russia in several streams from 1609 to 1637 and settled in the southern Russian steppes between the Volga and Don. Ethnically, the group that went to Russia was a mixture of several Western Mongolian peoples: Torguts, Derbet, Khoyts and a certain number of Khoshuts. The number of the group, which began to be called Kalmyks, was more than 270 thousand people. The fate of Kalmyks in Russia has not been easy. At first they had the Kalmyk Khanate, which was quite independent in its internal affairs. However, oppression by the Russian government displeased the Kalmyk khans, and in 1771 they decided to return back to Western Mongolia and took with them about half of their subjects. Almost everyone died along the way. In Russia, the Khanate was liquidated, and the remaining population was subordinated to the Astrakhan governor.

Dzungars and Dzungaria.

Part of the Oirats - Choros, several clans of Torguts, Bayats, Tumets, Olets created a khanate in the west of Mongolia, which received the name Dzhungar (from the Mongolian “jungar” - “left hand”, once the left wing of the Mongol army). All subjects of this khanate were called Dzungars. The territory in which it was located was (and is) called Dzungaria.

The greatest of the Dzungar khans, Galdan (r. 1671–1697) was the last Mongol conqueror. His career began inconspicuously as a Buddhist monk in Lhasa. After being released from his vow by the 6th Dalai Lama to avenge his brother's death, he founded a state stretching from western Xinjiang to eastern Mongolia. But in 1690, and then in 1696, his advance to the east was stopped by the troops of the Manchu Emperor Kangxi.

Galdan's nephew and successor Tsevan-Rabdan (r. 1697–1727) expanded the state to the west, capturing Tashkent, and to the north, stopping the Russian advance in Siberia. In 1717, he tried to prevent Chinese penetration into Tibet, but Chinese troops expelled him from there too, placing the VII Dalai Lama in Lhasa, convenient for China. After a period of civil war, the Chinese displaced the last Dzungar khan in 1757 and turned the Dzungar possessions into the Chinese province of Xinjiang. The Choros people, where all the Dzungar khans came from, were almost completely exterminated by the Chinese, and Turks, Mongols and even Manchus settled on their lands, joined by close relatives of the Dzungars, the Kalmyks, who returned from the Volga.

Eastern Mongols.

After the victory of the Oirats over Uldziy-Temur, representatives of the house of Kublai almost exterminated each other in a bloody civil strife. Mandagol, the 27th successor of Genghis Khan, died in battle with his nephew and heir. When the latter was killed three years later, the only surviving member of the once large family was his seven-year-old son, Batu-Mange of the Chahar tribe. Abandoned by his mother, he was taken in by the young widow of Mandagol, Mandugai, who achieved his proclamation as khan of the Eastern Mongols. She served as regent throughout his early years and married him at age 18. He went down in history as Dayan Khan (reigned 1470–1543) and managed to unite the Eastern Mongols into a single state. Following the traditions of Genghis Khan, Dayan Khan divided his tribes into the “left wing”, i.e. the eastern, directly subordinate to the khan, and the “right wing”, i.e. Western, subordinate to one of the khan’s closest relatives.

Acceptance of Buddhism.

The new Mongol state did not long outlive its founder. The collapse is probably associated with the gradual adoption by the Eastern Mongols of pacifist Buddhism of the Tibetan Gelug school.

The first converts were the Ordos, a “right wing” tribe. One of their leaders converted his powerful cousin Altan Khan, the ruler of the Tumets, to Buddhism. The head of the Gelug school was invited to a meeting of Mongolian rulers in 1578, where he established the Mongolian church and received the title of Dalai Lama from Altan Khan (Dalai is the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan words meaning “wide as the ocean,” which should be understood as “all-encompassing”). Since then, the successors of the head of the Gelug school have held this title. The next to be converted was the great khan of the Chakhars. Since 1588, the Khalkhas also began to convert to the new faith. In 1602, the head of the Buddhist community of Mongolia, its supreme hierarch, was declared the incarnation of Jebtsun-damba-khutukhta, one of the first preachers of Buddhism in Tibet. The institution of “living gods,” already established in Tibetan Buddhism by that time, also took root in Mongolia. From 1602 to 1924, the year when the Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed, 8 “living gods” stood at the head of the church, taking turns replacing each other. 75 years later, the 9th "living god" appeared. The conversion of the Mongols to Buddhism explains, at least in part, their rapid subjugation to a new wave of conquerors - the Manchus. Before the attack on China, the Manchus already dominated the area later called Inner Mongolia. Chakhar Khan Ligdan (r. 1604–1634), who bore the title of Great Khan, the last independent successor of Genghis Khan, tried to subjugate the southern Mongols, but they became vassals to the Manchus. Ligdan fled to Tibet, and the Chahars also submitted to the Manchus. The Khalkhas held out longer, but in 1691 the Manchu Emperor Kangxi, an opponent of the Dzungar Khan Galdan, convened the rulers of the Khalkha clans for a meeting at which they recognized themselves as his vassals. Mongolia's vassal dependence on Qing China continued until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1911–1912, a revolution took place in China, during which the Manchu Qing dynasty was overthrown and the Republic of China was proclaimed. Outer Mongolia (territorially coinciding with present-day Mongolia) declared its independence. Inner Mongolia wanted to do the same, but its independence movement was suppressed and it remained part of China.

Independence of Outer Mongolia.

The head of independent Mongolia became the 8th head of the “living god” Buddhist church, Bogdo Gegen. Now he was not only a religious, but also a secular ruler of the country, and Mongolia turned into a theocratic state. Bogdo Gegen's inner circle consisted of the highest strata of the spiritual and feudal aristocracy. Fearing a Chinese invasion, Mongolia moved towards rapprochement with Russia. In 1912, Russia promised to support the “autonomy” of Outer Mongolia, and the following year its status as an independent state was recognized in a joint Russian-Chinese declaration. In accordance with the Kyakhta Agreement, concluded by China, Russia and Mongolia in 1915, the autonomy of Outer Mongolia under the suzerainty of China was officially recognized. During this period, Russia and especially Japan sought to strengthen their positions in Inner Mongolia and Manchuria. In 1918, after the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, a revolutionary party was formed in Mongolia under the leadership of D. Sukhbaatar, which called not only for the liberation of the country from foreign dependence, but also for the removal of all clergy and aristocrats from the government. In 1919, the Anfu clique, led by General Xu Shuzhen, restored Chinese control over Mongolia. Meanwhile, supporters of D. Sukhbaatar united with members of the circle of H. Choibalsan (another local revolutionary leader), laying the groundwork for the formation of the Mongolian People's Party (MPP). In 1921, the united revolutionary forces of Mongolia, with the support of the Soviet Red Army, defeated the forces opposing them, including the Asian Division of the Russian White Guard general Baron Ungern von Sternberg. In Altan-Bulak, on the border with Kyakhta, a provisional government of Mongolia was elected, and in the same 1921, after negotiations, an agreement was signed to establish friendly relations with Soviet Russia.

The provisional government, created in 1921, operated under a limited monarchy, and the Bogd Gegen remained the nominal head of state. During this period, there was a struggle within the government itself between radical and conservative groups. Sukhbaatar died in 1923, and Bogd Gegen died in 1924. A republic was established in the country. Outer Mongolia became known as the Mongolian People's Republic, and the capital Urga was renamed Ulaanbaatar. The Mongolian People's Party was transformed into the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). In 1924, as a result of negotiations between Chinese leader Sun Yat-sen and Soviet leaders, an agreement was signed in which the Soviet Union officially recognized that Outer Mongolia was part of the Republic of China. However, less than a year after its signing, the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the USSR issued a statement in the press that, although Mongolia was recognized by the Soviet government as part of China, it had autonomy, excluding the possibility of Chinese interference in its internal affairs.

In 1929, the Mongolian government organized a campaign to transfer livestock into collective ownership. However, by 1932 it was necessary to make adjustments to the policies being pursued due to the ensuing economic devastation and political unrest. Since 1936, H. Choibalsan, who opposed forced collectivization, acquired the greatest influence in the country. Choibalsan took the post of prime minister of the republic in 1939, and the order he established in Mongolia was in many ways an imitation of the Stalin regime. By the end of the 1930s, most Buddhist temples and monasteries were closed; many lamas ended up in prison. In 1939, the Japanese, who by that time had already occupied Manchuria and largely Inner Mongolia, invaded the eastern regions of the MPR, but were driven out of there by Soviet troops who came to the aid of Mongolia.

Mongolia after World War II.

In February 1945, at the Yalta Conference, the heads of government of the Allies - Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin - agreed that "the status quo of Outer Mongolia (Mongolian People's Republic) must be maintained." For the nationalist forces (the Kuomintang Party) that controlled the Chinese government at that time, this meant maintaining the position enshrined in the Sino-Soviet agreement of 1924, according to which Outer Mongolia was part of China. However, as the Soviet Union persistently pointed out, the presence in the text of the conference decisions of the name “Mongolian People's Republic” meant that Churchill and Roosevelt recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia. China also expressed its readiness to recognize the independence of Mongolia in an agreement with the USSR concluded in August 1945, but subject to the consent of the inhabitants of Outer Mongolia. In October 1945, a plebiscite was held, during which the overwhelming majority of its population agreed that the country should receive the status of an independent state. On January 5, 1946, China officially recognized the Mongolian People's Republic (MPR), and in February of the same year, the MPR signed treaties of friendship and cooperation with China and the Soviet Union.

For several years, relations between the Mongolian People's Republic and China (where the Kuomintang was still in power) were marred by a number of border incidents, for which both countries blamed each other. In 1949, representatives of the Chinese nationalist forces accused the Soviet Union of violating the Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1945 by encroaching on the sovereignty of Outer Mongolia. However, already in February 1950, the newly proclaimed People's Republic of China, in the new Soviet-Chinese Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance, confirmed the validity of the provisions of the 1945 treaty concerning Mongolia.

In the late 1940s, the collectivization of pastoral livestock farms was again begun in the Mongolian People's Republic, and by the end of the 1950s it was almost completed. During this post-war period, industry developed in the country, a diversified agriculture was created and mining expanded. After the death of H. Choibalsan in 1952, his former deputy and General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) since 1940, Y. Tsedenbal, became the prime minister of the republic.

After in 1956 the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR N.S. Khrushchev condemned gross violations of the law during the Stalinist regime, the party leadership of the MPR followed this example with regard to the past of their own country. However, this event did not lead to the liberalization of Mongolian society. In 1962, the people of Mongolia celebrated the 800th anniversary of the birth of Genghis Khan with great enthusiasm and a sense of national pride. After objections from the Soviet Union, which declared Genghis Khan a reactionary historical figure, all celebrations were stopped and a harsh purge of personnel began.

During the 1960s, due to ideological differences and political rivalries, serious tensions arose in Sino-Soviet relations. With their deterioration, 7 thousand Chinese working under contracts were expelled from Mongolia, which took the USSR’s side in this conflict, in 1964. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Ulaanbaatar repeatedly denounced the PRC. The fact that Inner Mongolia, an autonomous region of China, has a significant Mongol population, only intensified the hostility. In the early 1980s, four Soviet divisions were stationed in Mongolia as part of a group of Soviet troops stationed along China's northern border.

From 1952 to 1984, Y. Tsedenbal was in power in the MPR, who combined the positions of General Secretary of the MPRP Central Committee, Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1952–1974) and Chairman of the Presidium of the Great People's Khural (1974–1984). After he was dismissed, he was replaced in all posts by J. Batmunkh. In 1986–1987, following the Soviet political leader M.S. Gorbachev, Batmunkh began to implement a local version of the policy of glasnost and perestroika. Population dissatisfaction with the slow pace of reforms caused large demonstrations in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989.

A broad social movement for democracy has emerged in the country. At the beginning of 1990, there were already six opposition political parties that actively called for political reforms. The largest of them, the Democratic Union, was officially recognized by the government in January 1990 and was later renamed the Mongolian Democratic Party. In March 1990, in response to the unrest, the entire leadership of the MPRP resigned. The new General Secretary of the MPRP Central Committee P. Ochirbat carried out a reorganization in the party. At the same time, some very well-known persons were expelled from the party (primarily Yu. Tsedenbal).

Then, in March 1990, P. Ochirbat became head of state. Soon after this, preparations began for elections to the country's highest legislative body. Amendments were made to the 1960 constitution to exclude references to the MPRP as the only party and the only guiding force in the political life of Mongolian society. In April, a congress of the MPRP was held, the purpose of which was to reform the party and prepare for participation in the elections; The congress delegates elected G. Ochirbat as General Secretary of the MPRP Central Committee. Although in the July 1990 parliamentary elections the MPRP won 357 of 431 seats in the highest legislative body, all opposition political parties were able to take part in electoral competition in most regions of Mongolia, thereby breaking the MPRP monopoly on power. In 1992, a new, democratic constitution was adopted, which introduced the post of president of the country. In the same year, P. Ochirbat (term of office 1992–1997), representing the democratic forces of the country, was elected president.

In September 1990, the coalition government of D. Byambasuren was formed, which, along with members of the MPRP, also included representatives of the opposition - the Mongolian Democratic Party, the Mongolian Social Democratic Party, and the National Progress Party. In June 1992, the MPRP again won the elections: having received 56.9% of the votes, it took 70 of 76 seats in the State Great Khural. The remaining mandates went to the “Democratic Bloc” (4 seats) consisting of the Democratic Party, the Civic Unification Party and the National Progressive Party (later merged into the National Democratic Party), Social Democrats and Independents (1 seat each). After the elections, a one-party government of the MPRP was re-formed, headed by P. Zhasray. Having proclaimed a “centrist course,” it continued to implement the market reforms it had begun, which included the privatization of land and industry.

Political confrontation in the country was growing. The opposition parties (NDP, MSDP, Greens and Religious) united in the “Democratic Union” bloc and accused the authorities of the collapse of the economy, thoughtless squandering of funds, corruption and mismanagement using “old communist methods.” Coming out under the slogan “Man – Labor – Development”, they were able to win the parliamentary elections in July 1996, receiving 47.1% of the vote and 50 of the 76 seats in the State Great Khural. This time the MPRP got 40.9% of the votes and 25 seats. The right-wing United Party of National Traditions received 1 mandate. The leader of the PDP, M. Ensaikhan, headed the government. The winning coalition began to speed up reforms. The rapid transformation of a centralized economy into a market economy led to a deterioration in the situation of a significant part of the population and social conflicts. The discontent showed itself quickly: the presidential elections in May 1997 were unexpectedly won by the MPRP candidate N. Bagabandi, who collected about two-thirds of the votes. The new president studied in the USSR, and from 1970–1990 headed one of the departments of the MPRP Central Committee. In 1992 he was elected deputy chairman of the MPRP Central Committee, in 1996 he headed the parliamentary faction of the party, and in 1997 he became chairman of the party.

The former ruling party began to consolidate its positions. Y. Tsedenbal's membership in the MPRP was posthumously restored, and a conference dedicated to his memory was held. However, disagreements in the government camp grew. In October 1998, one of the leaders of the 1990 democratic movement and a contender for the post of head of government, Minister of Infrastructure S. Zorig, was killed. The ruling coalition was unable to appoint a new prime minister for a long time; 5 candidates for this post failed to succeed. Only in December 1998 did the khural approve the mayor of Ulaanbaatar E. Narantsatsralt as head of government, who resigned in July 1999 and was replaced by the former Minister of Foreign Affairs R. Amarzhargal.

The drought of the summer of 1999 and the unusually cold winter that followed caused a catastrophic drop in agricultural production. Up to 1.7 out of 33.5 million livestock died. At least 35 thousand people needed food assistance. The growth of foreign investments (in 1999 they increased by 350% compared to 1998 and amounted to 144.8 million US dollars) in copper mining and the production of cashmere fiber, as well as textiles, could not mitigate the consequences for the population of structural economic reforms that were carried out under the patronage of International Monetary Fund. A third of the population lived below the subsistence level, the average per capita income was 40–80 US dollars per month and was lower than in Russia and China.

Disappointment with the policies of the ruling coalition led to its heavy defeat in the parliamentary elections in July 2000. The MPRP won 72 of 76 seats in the State Great Khural and returned to power. 1 place each went to the PDP, the bloc of the Party of Civil Courage and the Greens, the Homeland Alliance and the Independents.

General Secretary of the MPRP N. Enkhbayar, who became the head of government after the elections, promised that market reforms would continue, but in a softened version. Enkhbayar is a well-known translator of Russian and Anglo-American literature; in 1992–1996 he served as Minister of Culture; in 1996 he was elected General Secretary of the MPRP. Considers himself an active Buddhist; in the MPRP he is a supporter of the social-democratic image of the party.

The hegemony of the MPRP was strengthened in May 2001, when N. Baghabandi, having received 57.9% of the votes, was re-elected for a second term. The president reaffirmed his commitment to economic change, human rights and democracy and denied accusations that he intended to return to a one-party system. In 1998, Mongolia was visited for the first time since 1990 by a head of Western European state: German President Roman Herzog.

Mongolia in the 21st century.

In 2001, the International Monetary Fund provided a loan of $40 million.

In 2004, elections to the Great Khural were held, but they did not reveal an obvious winner, since the MPRP and the opposition coalition “Motherland - Democracy” received approximately the same number of votes. After lengthy negotiations, the parties came to a compromise, dividing power, and opposition representative Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj became prime minister. He belongs to the so-called. young democrats of the late 1980s - early 1990s.

In 2005, former Prime Minister Nambaryn Enkhbayar was elected President of Mongolia. The President was a symbolic figure. Although he could block decisions of parliament, which in turn could change the president's decision with a majority vote, this required a two-thirds vote.

At the beginning of 2006, the MPRP left the government coalition as a sign of disagreement with the country's economic policy, which resulted in Elbegdorj's resignation. The opposition held protests. More than one and a half thousand demonstrators broke into the building of one of the ruling parties.

On January 25, 2006, the Great People's Khural by a majority vote elected Miegombo Enkhbold, the leader of the MPRP, to the post of Prime Minister of the country. The appointment was also confirmed by the country's President Enkhbayar. Thus, the crisis in Mongolia, which threatened to develop into a revolution, ended. These events were called the “yurt revolution.”

At the end of 2007, Enkhbold was expelled from the party and therefore had to resign. That same year, Sanzhiin Bayar, also a member of the MPRP, was elected as the new prime minister. Such frequent changes of government led to an increased role of the presidency.

Since 2007, Mongolia began to pursue an active foreign policy, in particular, rapprochement with China and Russia began.

In July 2008, the opposition again tried to play out the orange scenario. On June 29, 2008, elections to the Great Khural took place. The Democratic Party announced election fraud. Riots began, and on July 1, the opposition captured and set fire to the MPRP headquarters in the center of Ulaanbaatar. The authorities responded decisively - the police opened fire and used tear gas, as a result of which several people were killed, arrests were made and a state of emergency was declared. The authorities managed to take control of the situation.

Literature:

Maisky I.M. Mongolia on the eve of the revolution. M., 1960
Dalai Ch. Mongolia in the 13th–14th centuries. M., 1983
History of the Mongolian People's Republic. M., 1983
Skrynnikova T.D. Lamaist Church and State. Outer Mongolia, XVI – early XX centuries. Novosibirsk, 1988
Trepavlov V.V. The political system of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. M., 1993
Nadirov Sh.G. Tsedenbal, 1984. M., 1995
Grayvoronsky V.V. Modern Aratism of Mongolia. Social problems of transition, 1980–1995. M., 1997
Kulpin E.S. Golden Horde. M., 1998
Walker S.S. Genghis Khan. Rostov-on-Don, 1998
Pershin D.P. Baron Ungern, Urga and Altan-Bulak. Samara, 1999

Ticket number 22. Vietnam (FER), North Korea and Mongolia after World War II

Vietnam

During WWII, Vietnam was occupied by Japanese troops, and patriots fought against Japan and France at the same time. In 1941, the communists formed a national front - the Viet Minh. On August 13, 1945, a decision was made to start a general uprising; the provisional government was headed by Ho Chi Minh. On August 25, with the capture of Saigon, the August Revolution achieved decisive success. September 2 – Declaration of Independence proclaimed, Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). The tasks were set: to increase production, fight hunger, implement the democratic rights of the people in the form general elections . January 6, 1946 – national elections. meeting. November 9 – 1st constitution of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam – democracy, everyone has rights, equality all around, everything is fine. The dissolution of the Communist Party, which did not mean its temporary departure into hiding. At the same time, the international background is extremely shitty. As a result of the Potsdam Conference, the United States and Great Britain were supposed to disarm Japanese troops in southern Vietnam; the United States entrusted this mission to Chiang Kai-shek, his troops are entering the North. Vietnam and create a threat to the revolution, the British facilitate the return of the French expeditionary force, they organize an asta-lavista in Saigon and then try to regain Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Ho Chi Minh made an attempt to enlist US support, but was sent away. It was decided to achieve peace with France, on March 6, 1946, an agreement was signed: Vietnam is free, France has a military presence in the country, a referendum was scheduled in South Vietnam. The French are stirring up the puppet state in Cochin China and putting military pressure on the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. New negotiations in Paris continued until December 1946. Already in November, the French contributed to the escalation of the conflict and issued an ultimatum. On December 20, Ho Chi Minh called on the country to resist the invaders. A total guerrilla war begins throughout the country, the French are slaughtered everywhere and mercilessly. In October 1947 - the battle in Viet Bak, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam seizes the initiative. France is betting on ex-Emperor Bao Dai and the consolidation of pro-French forces in Vietnam. In the early 50s, relations between the USSR and the PRC were established with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In September 1950, a counter-offensive by the DRV forces began. In February, the USA and England responded by recognizing Bao Dai's government and providing him with full support. 1951 - The Vietnamese Communist Party becomes the Vietnamese Workers' Party. A plan was developed for the speedy defeat of the DRV forces with the support of the United States, but it failed, in May 1954, during the operation near Dien Bien Phu, the Vietnamese brutally fry the French, as a result, the issue of peace in Indochina was put on the agenda of the Geneva Conference, on July 21, hostilities ceased, the French drained the water , the border between north and south along the 17th parallel. So, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was recognized as independent, socialism was being built there, capitalism was being stirred up in the Republic of Vietnam, everything was cool. In 54-55 The French are fighting with the Amers over South Vietnam, guess who sent who. Right. Since 1955, the Americans have been sending tons of money and crowds of advisers to South Vietnam, eventually imprisoning President Ngo Dinh Diep, who sabotages the general Vietnamese elections. In 1959, the anti-government struggle began in the south. In the meantime, social work is being carried out in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. reforms, but the economy is in a deep crisis, at the very least we managed to raise it to the level of 1939, an agrarian reform was carried out, a state was created. sector of the economy, industry has been partially nationalized, active assistance in all of this is provided by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, guess who. Right! In 1960, Ho Chi Minh was re-elected president, the guy is on his way to success, everyone loves him. At the 2nd Congress of the Working People's Party, a course was taken to unify the country. In general, Vietnam has really risen during 10 years of peaceful construction. Meanwhile, in southern Vietnam, patriots were advancing; in 1960, the National Vietnamese Army was created. the liberation front of South Vietnam, with a strong army. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam provides support to the patriots and acts as a united bloc against the amers. In response to this, the amers muddied the Staley-Taylor plan, which provided for the creation of strategic villages that would serve as strongholds in the fight against the rebels, as well as guarantors of pro-Western power in the regions. A lot of money was allocated for this, but already in 1962 it became clear that the plan was bullshit. Rebel troops control large parts of South Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem completely began to commit lawlessness, laying down bundles of Buddhists at demonstrations, -1,000,000 to his reputation, staff members decide to remove him, a military coup is organized, power passed to the generals led by Duong Van Minh. In 1965, the NLF (Southern Patriots) received support from a number of countries around the world. The Americans never liked this; since 1964, ships of the US 7th Fleet have regularly invaded the territory. waters of the DRV, as a result - the Tonkin incident, the Tonkin resolution, the Americans bomb the coast of the DRV. In February 1965, the blockade of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the air war against it began, followed by ground operations against the forces of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in South Vietnam (the battle in the Ia Drang Valley). PTV has set a course for the speedy transformation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam into an effective military mechanism, everything for the front, everything for victory, from the countries of socialist. camp received the most modern weapons and equipment. On March 31, 1968, the United States stopped bombing and expressed its readiness to sit down at the negotiating table. On September 3, 1969, Ho Chi Minh died and Ton Duc Thang was elected as the new head of state. The process of restoring the DRV is underway. In April-May, the forces of the patriots of South Vietnam launched a new offensive, new territories and large cities came under their control. The Provisional Revolutionary Government was formed. In 1972, there was a new offensive by the National Front of South Ossetia, the Americans were attacking the northerners with air force, they were not capable of more. Hanoi was bombed for 12 days, but the Democratic Republic of Vietnam persisted and everyone sat down at the negotiating table, January 15, 1973 - a complete cessation of hostilities. On January 27, an agreement was signed in Paris according to which... Vietnam won, the Pindos are withdrawing their troops. The Americans are trying to sabotage the Paris Agreement, advisers remain in South Vietnam, he is provided with material support, the forces of the South Vietnam carry out pacification operations and bomb the zone controlled by the government of the south. 1974 - opposition actions of the population of the South Vietnam are expanding, a deep economic and political crisis. Taking advantage of this, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam carried out a total mobilization of everyone and everything; in March 1975, a decisive offensive began in the south. On April 30, Saigon was captured during the April Operation Ho Chi Minh. Hurray, Vietnam won, everyone is happy, long live a united Vietnam! A new stage in the modern history of Vietnam has opened, full swing Social construction is underway. society. Ton Duc Thang is the president, the 1959 constitution of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam is in force, Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh, the PTV was renamed the Communist Party of Vietnam, Vietnam was proclaimed a Socialist Republic on July 2, 1976. Vietnam is strengthening its position in the international arena - in 1977 it became a member of the UN, in 1978 a member of the CMEA, and an agreement on friendship and cooperation was signed with Moscow. Relations with China and Cambodia are not going well. Pol Pot is on the rampage in Cambodia, presenting ter. claims, proceeds to a military clash on the border, was rebuffed by Vietnam, which successfully overthrew Pol Pot's comrades and established the People's Republic of Kampuchea in 1979. China has never been interested in strengthening Vietnam, and therefore has taken a hostile position towards it. The PRC exerts diplomatic pressure on Vietnam, conducts active anti-Vietnamese propaganda, organizes an act of aggression, which is carried out on February 17, 1979. For 2 weeks, Chinese troops advanced deep into Vietnam, encountering powerful resistance from Vietnam forces. As a result, the USSR demanded that the PRC stop its aggression, and on March 5, 1979, Beijing agreed to sit down with Hanoi at the negotiating table. In addition to the border wars, Vietnam experienced the problem of a slowdown in the rate of economic development due to the slowdown in the process of restructuring the national economy and industry for peacetime, so bleat. A real crisis was brewing, and therefore the next plenum of the Central Committee of the CPV was convened in August 1979. 1980 – new constitution of Vietnam. 80s - comprehensive strengthening of the country's economy, joint projects with the USSR and work at enterprises. In short, the Union invested heavily in Vietnam, but we must also give them their due; the opportunities provided were used wisely and with maximum benefit. With the beginning of perestroika in socialist countries. bloc reforms began in Vietnam. The idea of ​​a hell of a renovation has been put forward, the essence of which is as follows: an open door policy, the admission of foreign capital into the country, encouragement of private initiatives, incl. entrepreneurial, refusal to centralize economic management and people. households, in general, everything is the same as in all social networks. space. We can say that Vietnam followed the path of the PRC by purging the party and certifying party officials who occupied key government positions. posts. The collapse of the USSR affected Vietnam enormously, just as it did China. The government of the new Russia had essentially no attitude towards foreign policy relations with Vietnam, which led to a reduction in bilateral ties. Vietnam continued to open its doors to foreign capital, leading to positive results. In 1992, a new constitution of the Vietnamese Republic was adopted, which, in particular, provided guarantees for foreign investors. Laws on labor and land 93-94. also contributed to the development of Vietnam in new market conditions. In short, during the 90s and early 2000s, Vietnam successfully fit into the context of a new unipolar world built on market relations, with all the ensuing consequences. Now everything seems to be fine there)

Mongolia

On August 9, 1945, Mongolia took part in the USSR's war against Japan, hoping to strengthen its status as an independent state and regain Inner Mongolia. October 20 - referendum in the Mongolian People's Republic, everyone is for independence, China is in flight. The Republic of China recognized the independence of the Mongolian People's Republic. Next is a series of recognition in the world, the People's Republic of China (1949) is also not against the establishment of diplomatic relations. relationships. 1946 – treaty of alliance with the USSR. A one-party system is taking shape in the country - power is in the hands of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). 1947 - party plenum, a five-year development plan was set, everything was fine. The entire subsequent history of the national economy of the Mongolian People's Republic developed in a similar vein until the 80s, each plenum adopted a five-year plan and drove off. The plans were not carried out one hundred percent, but still brought the main benefit - they gradually increased the number of livestock, which was the most important thing for the people. Great People's Khural (GNH) - state. legislative body, deputies had to be elected, but in practice they were appointed by the Central Committee of the party, but no one seemed to care about this. *after all, the main thing is that there is a yurt and cattle* The Council of Ministers is headed by Marshal Choibalsan, a cool dude, the local Stalin. The USSR and China are helping the Mongols build railway lines from Ulaanbaatar to the Soviet and Chinese borders, hurray! In 1952, Choibalsan died, from that moment on the political climate in the Mongolian People's Republic seemed to warm up, although it is difficult for me personally to imagine what kind of political climate there was in general. At the 2nd Five-Year Plan, a development plan was adopted and the growth rate of industry (!) of the MPR was determined (no shit). In 1956, Mongolia buttered up the Union by approving Khrushchev’s report at the 20th Congress of the CPSU. But this is not a task, China does not approve at all, 10 thousand whales. workers were blown away like the wind from the industrial facilities under construction (again a shock) of the Mongolian People's Republic. The Mongolian government quickly realized that it was necessary to strengthen the foundations of socialism in the country and not in any way deviate from Marxist-Leninist teachings, so as not to anger China. The process of agricultural cooperation is underway according to three-year plans. During these years, an important event happened in Mongolia - the USSR helped create its own fucking agriculture. Then there was the plague, since 1960 Mongolia began to cooperate with individual companies from Japan, Great Britain, Austria and other European countries. A chamber of commerce and a couple of other bodies in charge of foreign trade were created. By the way, since 1958, the MPR has been ruled by Tsedenbal, the new chairman of the party’s Central Committee, a terribly authoritarian leader. July 6, 1960 – new constitution. In general, Mongolia is on the rise, the population is growing, the economy is developing at the very least, everything is fine. On October 27, 1961, at the request of the USSR, Mongolia joined the UN, which gave it +1000 protection from the PRC, which did not abandon hopes of Mongolia’s accession. On July 7, 1962, the MPR became a member of the CMEA, which promised it pleasant bonuses and significant economic assistance. January 15, 1966 - a new treaty of friendship and cooperation with the USSR. Due to the deterioration of relations between the Union and the PRC, Soviet troops were brought into the territory of the MPR under the agreement. O almighty Tengri, Tsendenbal suddenly began to tighten the screws and tighten the regime; the dissatisfied were subject to repression, not the same as in the Union in the 30s, but still. The stern Tsedenbal remained at the helm until his resignation in 1984, he was replaced by Batmunkha, who took the course of verbal perestroika. In the first half of the 60s, the Mongolian People's Republic was on the rise, but in the second half it declined a little, the number of livestock decreased, it failed. In the 70s, with the active assistance of the USSR and CMEA, the MPR was again in the black, all sorts of intergovernmental agreements were signed. In the early 80s, the situation did not change. 1986 – 19th Party Congress, last five-year plan. Next comes the crisis, because the Union no longer provides the same support. In the late 80s, due to the crisis in the Mongolian People's Republic, the number of opposition movements grew. December 10, 1989 – International Democratic Union. February 18, 1990 – 1st congress, demands for democratization. All activities are absolutely peaceful. The MPRP persists, as a result, on March 4 there was a rally in Ulaanbaatar, and on March 9 the Politburo of the MPRP Central Committee resigned. Hurray, the peaceful liberal-democratic revolution has taken place, Mongolia has taken the path of creating market relations, the political crisis has been overcome. The new Secretary General of the MPRP Central Committee is Ochirbat, a career party reactionary. 1992 – new constitution, all power to the people, implementation through elected institutions. The MPRP becomes a participant in the political struggle on a competitive basis. 94 – 95 – stabilization of the economy, a complete recovery has emerged. Since 2000, investments from abroad have been pouring into the Mongolian People's Republic. In the same year - Putin’s visit, new prospects for bilateral relations. The MPR becomes a member and participant of various international organizations and forums. Since 1997 - member of the WTO, since 2000 - member of the STES. Now everything is stable in Mongolia, because the main thing for a Mongolian is a yurt and cattle, the rest will follow)

DPRK

In accordance with the Potsdam Agreements (July 1945), a demarcation line was established between the Soviet and American zones of the Korean Peninsula along the 38th parallel. In fact, from that moment on, the formation of two Korean states hostile to each other began in the north and south of the peninsula. Immediately after liberation, local government bodies began to be created in the north of Korea - people's committees, the activities of which were supervised by the Soviet command. The administrative bureau of the 5 provinces coordinated the activities of the committees. The Soviet administration made every effort to ensure that the left ousted the nationalists from the committees. In February 1946, with the assistance of the Communist Party, the Provisional People's Committee of the North was created. Korea under the leadership of Kim Il Sung, the leader of one of the partisan detachments vs the Japanese. The left guys are actually in power, a powerful public sector of the economy is being created, industry is being restored and developed, commies are uniting into the Workers' Party of Korea. August 1946 - creation of the United Democratic National Front on the initiative of the commies. The intensifying confrontation with the United States prompted the Union to rely on the communists led by Kim Il Sung and begin building a pro-Soviet regime in the North. Korea. In September 1945, administrative power in the south was concentrated in the hands of General MacArthur. In South Korea, people's committees also began to form, demanding the unification of the country, but the staff members harshly suppressed the activity of the leftist movement in the south, blocking its activities. Initially, the USSR advocated the preservation of a unified Korea, the United States came up with the initiative of two and then four-way temporary administrative trusteeship. The trusteeship issue deepened the divisions between the southern right and the northern left. In 1947, the United States initiated national elections. meeting in South Korea. Despite protests from the leaders of the main political parties in southern and northern Korea, a separate government of the Republic of Korea was created in the south on May 10, 1948, headed by Syngman Rhee. The political communities of the north and south did not recognize the southern government; on August 25, 1948, they formed the Supreme People's Assembly, at the first session of which the creation of the DPRK was proclaimed. Kim Il Sung became chairman of the cabinet. The Soviet Union was the first to recognize and establish diplomatic relations. relations with the DPRK. So Korea split, which further escalated the confrontation and ultimately led to an armed conflict. The war of 1950 - 1953 left the Korean Peninsula divided into 2 parts hostile to each other. After the war, the DPRK began to restore the national economy. A three-year economic development plan was adopted with the support of the USSR and China. Next, a five-year development plan was developed. In 1958, agricultural cooperation was completed. Kim Il Sung decided to continue making free investments. The official ideology of the party, Juche (independence), was adopted, and at the same time the policy of self-reliance (charek kansen) was proclaimed. In the mid-50s, the struggle for power intensified in the DPRK; someone dared to speak out against the cultivation of Kim's personality! Kim was supported by the majority and the army, which seems to be a key factor for success. The bullies were repressed. In 1962, Khrushchev showed Kim the fig and did not give him the dough, for which Kim slowly curtailed ties with the USSR. New five-year plans, now we really need to rely on our own strength, although assistance still comes from the PRC. In the 70s, Kim Il Sung's son, his official successor Kim Chang Il, emerged. 1972 – new constitution. The post of President of the DPRK was introduced. The new seven-year plan 78 - 84 was not implemented, extended for 2 years, an attempt at reform. In 1980, a program was put forward to achieve ten economic heights over the next seven-year plan. But fail, complete stagnation. Kim Jr. also failed to stop the pace of economic decline. The command-administrative management system did not work at all. In 1994, Kim Il Sung died, Kim Chang Il is at the helm alone, the DPRK is trying to survive, trying to attract foreign capital, but not very successfully. With the collapse of the USSR and social Kim's camp allegedly committed treason. At the end of the 90s, there was famine in the DPRK, there was a shortage of raw materials, energy, food, a complete ass. Only the army and military-industrial complex live well, 50% of the budget goes there, which is no wonder, the army is the main and only support of the regime. International humanitarian supplies helped to survive, but the problems have not been solved. In the 90s and early 2000s, the situation on the Korean Peninsula worsened due to the launch of the DPRK nuclear program. In 1994, after negotiations, an agreement was signed with the United States, according to which the DPRK curtailed nuclear development, and the United States and the South Caucasus pledged to supply and install light water reactors for nuclear power plants in the North. The DPRK also carried out developments in the field of the rocket industry, chemistry. weapons and all sorts of other bad things that caused a sharply negative reaction from the world community (USA). With all this, Korea actively expanded its international contacts in the 90s by establishing diplomatic relations. relations with many countries of the world, in 1991 even became a member of the UN. An important donor of the North. Korea remains the People's Republic of China; without China it would be difficult. In 2000, Putin visited the DPRK, which heralded the normalization of relations between the new Russia and the DPRK, and an agreement on friendship and good neighborliness was signed. Over the past 10 years, as we know, the DPRK continues to pursue its internal political line, periodically attacking its southern neighbors and envying their successes. This will probably continue until China stops giving lavashka).