Polish prepositions and conjunctions table. Service Parts of Speech (Wyrazy niesamodzielne). The Polish “przez” is also very ambiguous and, in addition to “through”, it can also have other meanings “due to”, “due to”, “during”, etc.

Prepositions are one of the most difficult topics in any language. In languages ​​that do without cases, it is prepositions that perform their function, and in English, for example, a preposition can sometimes radically change the meaning of a verb. In languages ​​with an abundance of cases, like Polish, the same preposition can be used with different cases and have different meaning. In general, with these pretexts, the devil will break his leg.

If you want my opinion, then I am sure that coping with pretexts is a daunting task. I am sure that it is much easier to feel them than to build any digestible system. Thus, to work with prepositions in the best possible way it will, however, sometimes not hurt to reinforce what has been started with a point study of individual prepositions.

Let's start with the suggestion through».

The first thing that comes to mind, as a Polish equivalent to this Russian preposition, is “ przez". But, it should be noted that:

1. We translate "through" as "przez" only if talking about space

Na przykład: Pojechaliśmy do Polski przez Ukrainę.

We went to Poland through Ukraine.

W tym mieście kawiarni są przez każde pięć metrow!

In this city, there are cafes every five meters!

2. The Polish “przez” is also very ambiguous and, in addition to “through”, it can also have other meanings “due to”, “due to”, “during”, etc.

Na przykład: Spóźniliśmy przez nasz samochód.

We were late because of our car.

Przez cały rok skrzętnie uczyłem się języka polskiego.

Throughout the year, I diligently studied the Polish language.

If we are with you talking about time, then the translation of "through" will depend on when the action occurs.

1. If the action takes place in the future, then we translate "through" as " za ».

Na przykład: On wyjechał do Polski i wróci (w przyszłości) za dwa lata.

He left for Poland and will return (in the future) in two years.

2. If the action is in the past, then we translate "through" as " po ».

Na przykład: On wyjechał do Polski i wrócił (w przeszłości) po dwu latach.

He went to Poland and returned (in the past) two years later.

In order to better remember, we systematize the above in the form of a tablet.

Now you can overlay the table of school Polish on the school Russian. First, only headings, prepositions, endings:
case/// Questions/// Prepositions/// Singular: 1skl//2skl//3skl/// Plural
przypadek///Pytania///Przyimki/// liczba pojedyncza:m“0”//m/w-a,i//w“0”//cf///lic zba mnoga nie m-o( not m-l)//męskoosobowy
AND(Nominative///Who? What?///“0”///“0”,-o,-e// -a,-i// “0”,-me///-s,-i,-a,-i, -e//does not stand out
Mianownik///Who? Co?///“0”/// m/r“0”//m:-a(-ta);g:-a,i//g“0”//sr-o,e,-u m; ę, mię
///not m-l m+f:-y,-i,-e/ cf:-a
((m / r (not m-l all) + f / r on -a, -i:
y: on solid accords;/ i: only -gi,-ki;/ e: to -ż, rz, -sz, cz, -c, -dz + to soft (-l, -j, -ni, -ń, ś,ć,ź);
/f to acc(all): e,-y,-i independent from the base
/cp(-o,-e,-um):- a;/ cf(ę,mię): - ęta,-miona))
//m-l:-y,-i,-e
((y: without alternation according to ec/cy, ca/cy; 3 turns: -r/rzy, k/cy, g(a)/dzy
i: 8soft: -p/pi, b/bi, n/ni, m/mi, w/wi, s/si, z/zi, f/fi; 4cher:t/ci; sta/ści; d/dzi; ch/si
e: rz/rze; sz/sze; cz/cze; ść/ście; l/le; rank, relationship:- owie))
P(genitive)/// Whom? What? (no) /// near, near, without, for, from to y, with, from, because of -a, -i (u/u) //-s, -i//-i// /“0”, -ov, -ev, -(i)th, -ey// -
Dopełniacz/// Kogo? Czego?(nie ma) /// koło (obok), bez, dla, od, do, u, z/ze; z powodu=because of, naprzeciwko =opposite, wśród = among, oprócz =except, podczas (w czasie) =during; według = according to: …mnie/niego= in my/his (opinion); …wskazówek – instructions/// -a/-u // -y/i // -i/y//-a
M/r “0” live:-a
M/r“0”not alive: -a/-u
a:months of February; tools; parts of the body; Polish cities; all on ak, nik; decrease: ek, ik/yk u: uncountable, collected, abstract, foreign, days of the week; DO NOT decrease: ek; izm/yzm
//m/r on "a" + w on "a, i": i: after k, g; soft (-cja,sja,zja=-ji; -ja=-i); y: after the rest
//w“0”- ży,rzy; szy,czy; after other letters: -i/y //Ср/р all: -a
///“0”;-ów -i/y
m/r all: solid -ów; ż,rz,sz,cz;dz,c: -y; soft -i(+options:-ów/-y)
f/r on “a” + cf/r: “0”: after hard + sometimes after soft/hissing; -y: after ż,rz,sz,cz; i: after soft// w/r“0”only -i/y //m-l is not selected
D(dative) /// To whom, What? -
Celownik/// Komu? Czemu? /// ku, dzięki, przeciwko, wbrew (to, thanks to, against, in spite of) /// -owi,u//-(i)e,y,i// y,i//-u
//m/acc: owi,u(no rule)//m/r on "a" + all w/r:(i)e,y,i=P// sr/r all:-u/// -om// -
B(accusative)/// Whom? What? (to have) /// for, through, (on, in) about /// inanimate = I / inspiratory = R//-u,-u//w “0” + cf / r = I
///neoshoulder=I/soul=R// -
Biernik/// Kogo? Co?(mieć)/// za, przez, (na, nad, w), o/// m“0” nieżywotny=I/ m“0” żywotny(=P)=-a//
m / r on "-a" + f / r on "-a, i" \u003d -ę / / f / r "0" + cf / r all \u003d I / / / \u003d I: everything is not m-l m / r alive and not alive + all w / r and cf//m-l=R
T(Cerative/// By whom? What? // -
Narzędnik/// Kim? Czym? /// za, nad, pod, z, przed, między/// (i)em//-ą//-ą//(i)em/// ami(mi- soft)// -
P(Prepositional) /// About whom / what? ,-I// -
Miejscownik/// O kim? O czym? (Gdzie - where?) /// O; w, na, przy, po(walks where? po dashu =on the roof), po(when? po pracy =after work)/// ie, e, u//ie, e, y, i
//-ie m+sr+f hard: 8 softened and 3 black as in (I) m-l: t (a) \u003d cie; st(a)=ście; (z)d=(ź)dzie;
-e m+sr+f: turn (s)ł=(ś)le; r=rze
-u (m / r "0" + cf without black) on ch,k,g,c,soft,thorn
//-e (w / r and m / r on "-a") + 3cher: cha=sze, ka=ce; ga=dze
y/i(=P) w + m on "-a":-y (to -c,-dz,-cz,-sz, rz,ż)/ i: (to l, j, i,ś,ń,ć,ź)
//w"0": y/i(=P)
///-ach// -
Z(Vocative)/// -/// -/// “0”/// Mn.h=I// -
Wołacz/// -/// -/// -(i)e,-u//-o,-u,-i//-i,-y//=AND
m "0" \u003d P (excl - (n) iec / - (ń) cze), reduce: -u / / (w + m) by "-a" - hard, -ja: -o; decrease: -u; on i=i// w“0”:-i,y(=P)// cf=I
///Plural = I: Panie!(Ladies!)// Plural = I: Panowie! (G-yes!) Państwo! (Ladies and Gentlemen!)
What can be useful from this porridge? First, the prepositions are very similar to Russian ones. For example, in the nominative they are not in the case either in the Russian line or in the Polish one, which was obvious without any table.
Genitive also starts optimistically: about, near, without, for, from, to at, with, from, because of (who/what) roughly correspond to Polish koło(obok), bez, dla, od, do, u, z/ze ; z powodu (kogo/czego), especially since the Polish reads dla=[for]. Remembering the Little Russian accent in the textbook “I’m walking near the Christmas tree” (“Konduit and shvambraniya”), it’s easy to guess that koło (obok) = near, and having stumbled a couple of times on z / ze or z powodu, you realize that our prepositions do not exist in Polish “from, from (co), because of”, but there is “z / ze”. Z powodu awarii, ze szkoły, podczas burzy, oprócz cebuli (because of an accident, from school, during a storm/thunderstorm, except for a bow) and also naprzeciwko = opposite, wśród = among, podczas=w czasie="at the time" good guess when you think about a village on the Russian-Ukrainian border.
The discrepancy between Polish and Russian prepositions is mainly stylistic and begins where schoolchildren get confused in cases. In Russian, you need to say "I'm going to school / to the cinema (V)" or "from school, from the cinema (R)". And a deuce threatens a child who writes “from school, from kin” or, moreover, “to school” - if he is going not only to get to it, but also to go inside and spend the whole day there. In this case, what a Russian deuce is a five to a Pole. Polish schoolboy idzie do szkoły (P) / wraca ze szkoły (P), chodzi do kina (P), (idzie na film (B), idzie do domu / do parku (P), which translates - goes to school (B) / returns from school (P), goes to the cinema (goes to see a movie (B), goes home / to the park (B). And the fact that the Polish “cinema” gets the usual case endings, like other foreign words, is the least of the problems The list of places a Polish student goes/walks/travels to is very long, but sometimes a Pole, for a change, goes “to/to” and even “above” something: na stadion(B)=to the stadium, nad morze(B )=on the sea (also on=nad any shore of a body of water) w Tatry(В)=into the Tatras (as well as in=w any other mountains), and this is the accusative case, and when coming back from the mountains or from an event, it is genitive. Here the pair (B) / (P) completely coincides with the Russians: w Tatry / / z Tatr, na stadion / film / concert / obiad (B) / / ze stadionu, z filmu / concertu / obiadu (P) (in the Tatras / from the Tatras, to the stadium / film / concert / lunch / / from the stadium, from the film / concert / lunch), as well as the unusual Russian ear “nad morze (B) / / znad morza (P) \u003d at sea / / from the sea " . Another funny example from Polish style is our “according to what? - according to the instructions. We taught, taught that this is the dative case (according to the protocol, decision, etc.), but it turned out that in Polish all these expressions are genitive, although it is translated into Russian as dative: według = according to: ...mnie / niego (Р) = to my / his (opinion(D); ... wskazówek(P) = instructions(D)
Dative, except for "according to what / what" does not bring any special surprises. Dzięki/wbrew (thanks to/in spite of) so it will be dzięki (niemu)twojemu przyjacielowi/ wbrew wszystkim= thanks to (him) your friend/ in spite of (or in spite of) everyone. Does not match przeciwko(przeciw) komuś/czemuś(D), with Russian "against whom/what(R)". Here, in contrast to "according to what", the opposite is true: in Russian - genitive, in Polish - dative. By the way, if someone hasn’t guessed yet, in Polish dictionaries they don’t write komu / czemu (to whom / what) but komuś / czemuś (to someone / something), and not “kto / co”, but “ktoś / coś” and so on in all cases, since the particle "ś" corresponds to our "-or / -to", although it is written without a hyphen. "Ku" is rare, and is usually translated: ku morzu/ zadowoleniu = to the sea/pleasure (for example, mutual). The Russian “to walk on the roof, in the park” from the Polish point of view is not a dative case, but a prepositional one. This difference is easier to notice in the words m / r on a consonant: the Russian walks “in the park, on the roof (D)” // is “in the park, on the roof (P)” and the Pole is only na / po dachu / / w parku (P ) - on / on the roof / / in the park, and cannot stomp around the park, as on the surface, especially in the dative case, although one can probably say that he turned around “to the park” = ku parkowi (D).
In the accusative“on, in, over” in the combinations na stadion, nad morze, w Tatry and na film / koncert - this has already been passed. The Poles also go “to the spazer” (na spacer (B). Spazer = walking. The unusual thing about a spazer is that he somehow managed not to get into the Russian language. There is a “motion”, there is a “promenade”, but there is no spazer. Well, okay, if you didn’t hit, then you don’t need it. In a completely Russian way, a Pole walks through a park or across a street (for example, along a transition) - idzie przez park / ulicę (B). True, he doesn’t walk very Russian with the preposition "before" from the house to the site (B) before front door: idzie przed dom(B). We, of course, do not say: “I will go out (to) the front of the house” - but the cases are the same here. There is also a preposition “for” in the usual variant for us: “przepraszać za spóźnienie = to apologize for being late (B)”. It also sounds good in Polish za in the sense of “za darmo / za opłatą (Т)” = “for free / for a fee (for money (B)". It's even a shame that in Polish it's not accusative, but instrumental, and in fact it should be "(with what?) for free / with payment." By the way, "how? - for free, for nothing , for nothing" is an adverb in both languages, and it has no case endings. In addition, "za darmo" = "free" means free tickets, bonuses, etc., and not the archaic slang "for nothing" and is always written separately. This booklet - za darmo, and that card over there - za opłatą(T), for a fee.But more often the choice (B) / (T) does not cause problems: położyć coś pod/na stół/ jest pod stołem = to put something under /on the table (B)/ is under the table (T).
There is absolutely no our “pro” in the Polish language (about that, about that, etc.). Therefore, there are no options “about the road (P) / about the road (V)” in Polish - there is only “o”, and with the accusative case, and not with the prepositional, as we would like. It turns out that asking (someone) about something / about the road / about the time ”(P) is translated only in the accusative case = pytać (się) (kogoś) o coś / o drogę o godzinę(V) - something in between between our “ask (about what) about the road / about time (B)” or “ask (what?) Road / time (B)”. It is even more difficult to come to terms with the fact that “to ask for an address” (B) = prosić o adres (B). By the way, the Polish preposition "o" in its rightful place in the prepositional case is translated without problems: talking and thinking about someone (P) = mówić i marzyć o kimś(P). But the strangest combination for the Russian ear - that is, worse than "driving over the sea / over the river (B), or returning "from-above" the river (R), and even asking" about the address "/ go "in front of the house" ( B)" is Polish "czekać na (kogoś/co)" = to wait (for someone/something) (B). Only close genetic ties with Ukraine would suggest that czekać na ojca/autobus(B) = wait for father/bus(B). But not everyone knows Ukrainian verbs.
Instrumental case, like the prepositional, almost does not add unusual combinations and new prepositions. “For free/for a fee” za darmo/ za opłatą(Т)” was already there. They don't need to be translated "pod stołem/nad stołem=under/above the table(T)". The Polish “over”, turning into the instrumental, becomes almost recognizable even in expressions like be (where?) “on the sea (on the lake (P) = (where - “over what”?) nad morzem (nad jeziorem) (T) "- in contrast to" go (where) nad morze (jezioro) (B) / return (from where) znad morza (jeziora) (P) ". Also turns idzie przed dom (B) into the usual stoi przed domem (przed kinem) (T) = stands in front of the house (or in front of the “kin”, sorry, the cinema). “Together (with whom) with my brother” also sounds “in Russian”, that is, z moim bratem. The use of prepositions between and behind is absolutely understandable. when trying to translate “między stołem a szafą wisi lampa (śpi kot)/ za domem jest ogród.” Although there are enough surprises not related to prepositions and cases in this example: firstly, the Poles use either “a” or “i "(and in this case no comma separates "a"!), where in Russian there is always only "and"; secondly, "szafa" is our closet, which turned out to be feminine in Polish; thirdly , "ogród" is a garden, not a kitchen garden. So the correct translation is: “a lamp hangs between the table and the closet (the cat is sleeping) / there is a garden behind the house.” It can be considered that the Polish “for” lets the Russians down (if you do not take into account za opłatą(Т)=for a fee(В) in just one case: “tęsknić za kimś/czymś(Т)= to miss someone/what (P)” , although here the classically rural “I miss my relatives, girlfriends (T), and our house (T)” also helps out - that is, I miss home.
Prepositional when it comes to questions o kim? o(w;na;po)czym? gzie? extremely similar to Russian, as you can already see: marzyć o kimś- to think / dream about someone (P); na/po dachu//w parku= (to be) on/ (to walk) on the roof// in the park(P). The complexity of the Polish "where" is more likely due to the unusual declension geographical names. The coolest exception is three European countries: Hungary, Germany, Italy. In Polish, these are Węgry, Niemcy, Włochy, and their population is Węgrzy, Niemcy, Włosi ( m-l rod), and the inhabitants are spoken of as Węgrach, Niemcach, Włochach. Since the “correct” endings are already occupied by nationalities, the Pole writes about countries “Węgry / na Węgrzech - Hungary / in Hungary” (and not “na Węgrach”, this will turn out to be chauvinism!). Germans and Italians behave similarly: w Niemczech=in Germany, we Włoszech=in Italy. These are exceptions that are in any Polish textbook, but the use of “on” and “in” Russian does not cut the ear. Similarly with the city of Zakopane / in Zakopane - Zakopane / w Zakopanem (and not “w Zakopanym” and not “w Zakopanych”!). Mismatches about where to write "in" and where "on" are generally less common than you might expect. This is, for example, our "at the university" = na uniwersytecie in Polish. Village/(na)in the village= wieś/na wsi is distinguished by the use of "na wsi" meaning "summer in the countryside", referring to the countryside, rather than as a preposition. But there are two prepositions that are often used "not in Russian at all", these are przy, po. Still, the Russian dine at the table (T), but the Pole - "at the table" = przy stole (P), even if they are sitting next to each other. And of course, “on”, if it’s not “walking on the roof, on the site”, namely “after finishing something there”: (when?) po pracy (P) = after work (P). It will also be after dinner / concert, etc.
But prepositions are not used in the vocative case, since the "o" in the exclamation "O Mouse!" this is not a preposition at all, but an interjection like “Ah! Oh!”, and the correct way to address this beast would be “o Myszy!”.
Of course, it is impossible to list ALL cases where Polish prepositions match / do not match ours. On the other hand, two and a half pages of instructive examples from Polish textbooks provide an excellent opportunity to completely get lost in Polish endings, which at first seemed simple and familiar. That allows, finally, to fill in the table of Polish cases with words. By the way, when checking it in a textbook, especially translated from English, pay attention to the sequence of cases - it does not always coincide with “our Russian”.
Perhaps the most noticeable and difficult difference between Polish and Russian declensions is soft and hard endings. Since the letters “i”, “u” and “ь” are absent in Polish, then ń, ś, ć, ź / ni, si, ci, zi are the same “soft” letters that are written differently in depending on the position at the end of a word / before a vowel; “softening of consonants” - p / pi, b / bi, n / ni, m / mi, w / wi, s / si, z / zi, f / fi performs the function of a “soft sign” in the endings -i = [and] or –ie=[e]; furthermore, rz, dz, and z may behave differently in standard interlaces; and of course, one must take into account the beloved Polish “zhy, shy through “y”. All this is easy to remember, approximately like a telephone directory or as case endings in Russian. Therefore, you have to memorize individual words and it is better if with prepositions / verbs, or in short phrases. In order not to immediately add adjectives to nouns, we will use the magic pronoun “this/this/this/these”, which warns well that the Polish stove is masculine, the wardrobe is feminine, etc. This = ten, and “that” = tamten (ta=tamta etc). They behave the same in all variants, including "ci" and "tamci", so for gender/number it is enough that this/this/this=ten/ta/to; these(men)/(not men)=ci/te

The article analyzed the recent in the Polish linguistic literature of the definition of the apprentice yak
synsemantic category of words. I especially respect zoseredzheno on the second successors. Naked for roles
There are 1 units in the modern Polish syntactic system, which are used in transitions from synthetic to analytic
forms.
Key words: successor, secondary successor, meaning, pastor, Polish language.

1. More about the definition of a preposition
The definition of preposition existing in Polish linguistic literature defines this category
as a service (synsemantic) word, which, in the understanding of traditional grammar, controls
a noun or a form of another part of speech with a noun function. At the same time, "synsemantic"
is understood as one for which the syntactic function consisting in linking, highlighting, correlating
etc., is the main one. In turn, service (synsemantic) words (grammatical words,
empty words, formal words, etc.) are words that are unable to act independently as members
sentences and serving to express various kinds of semantic-syntactic relations between
significant words. In other words: these are functionally and semantically dependent words,
which form syntactic units in combination with a noun phrase; in another way: official words,
which provide entry into the formal-syntactic structures of words, which, mutually exclusive,
these structures could not form (por. “wyrazy pomocnicze, kture umożliwiają wstępowanie w związki
formalnoskładniowe wyrazom, kture inaczej byłyby wzajemnie inkompatybilne”).
These definitions suffer from various shortcomings. For example, the definition according to
for which the preposition is a word that is not independent in a semantic sense, it is not enough
expressive, because it is not known whether the semantic non-self-sufficiency and their semantic
incompleteness or lack of meaning (as indicated by the definition "synsemantic"). Maybe it's their
syntactic, not semantic, non-self-sufficiency.
This means that the question of the semantics of the preposition - as well as its linguistic status - also remains insufficient.
studied and discussed. In this regard, it is only emphasized that in the Polish language prepositions are all
are not semantically empty words: they point (sygnalizują) to various types relationship
(spatial, temporal, causal, etc.).
In any case, each preposition is characterized only by its inherent set of meanings.
The meanings of the preposition constitute its semantic structure (i.e., the totality of its semantic
implementations, or variants). In other works, the indication of the functional aspect of this
word categories. See, for example, Maciej Grochowski's "Wyrażenia funkcyjne. Studium leksykograficzne”
(Functional expressions. Lexicographic study).
The next question raised in the literature about the status of prepositions is the question of the relationship between preposition and
case inflection in a prepositional group. This problem can be reduced to the formula "preposition - word or
morpheme?". This is discussed in detail, for example, by Iwona Kosek in her work „Przyczasownikowe frazy przyimkowo-
nominalne w zdaniach wspуłczesnego języka polskiego” (Verbal prepositional noun phrases in
sayings of the modern Polish language). Here is an overview of the concepts of Polish
linguists, starting with E. Kurilovich and Z. Klemensevich, ending with their students and admirers (Tadeusz
Milevsky, Andrzej Boguslavsky, Stanislav Karoljak, Maciej Grochovsky and others). This thread makes no sense
© Lyakhur Ch., 2008 LINGUISTIC STUDIO. Issue 17

76
spread, especially since the concept of Jerzy Kurilovich is well known in the Russian-speaking
linguistic literature.
The next question is about the structure of prepositions. Modern Polish has prepositions
primary, primordial from a genetic (etymological) point of view for a given language (and perhaps for
most Slavic languages), and secondary, derived from other parts of speech. Both of them are
simple or complex. The composition of Polish prepositions, of course, is constantly replenished at the expense of other parts
speech.
Very significant information about the etymology of Slavic prepositions is given by the work of Frantisek
Kopechny "Etimologicke slovnnk slovanskech jazykoů" (Etymological dictionary of Slavic languages).
For the Polish language, there are no monographs yet, which have appeared systematically describing all
primitive prepositions, with detailed illustrative material. Existing works
are connected, first of all, with the study of the semantics of prepositional constructions, and describe individual
meanings of prepositions. Of particular note are the studies of Adam Weinsberg and Barbara
Klebanovskaya. Dedicated to double prepositions in Polish
monograph by Cheslav Lyakhur.
The authors of most of the available works on the functioning of prepositions in Polish,
indicate the interdependence and interdependence of the preposition and the noun. It's connected with
establishing the compatibility of individual prepositions with certain classes of nouns (in other words: which
nouns appear with certain prepositions). Let us make the following remark. M. Grokhovsky,
co-author of the academic “Gramatyki wspуłczesnego języka polskiego” (Grammar of Modern Polish
language), states: „Przyimki obok własności gramatycznych sprowadzających się do determinowania określonej
formy przypadkowej mają także własności leksykalne (relacyjne), polegające na wyznaczaniu klas rzeczownikuw, kture
mogą z nimi wspуłwystępować. Kwestia, jakie leksemy rzeczownikowe mogą być użyte po jakim przyimku, wymaga
szczegułowej analizy” (“Prepositions, except for grammatical properties, which can be reduced to determining
a certain case form, they also have lexical (relational) properties, consisting in
indicating classes of nouns that can interact with them. The question is what lexemes
nouns can be used after which preposition requires a detailed analysis").
And finally, the question of the distinction between prepositions and adverbs. As is well known, no grammatical class
is not isolated, existing outside the context. Units that can be unambiguously included in
certain grammatical class are few. To such units, not amenable to unambiguous
linguistic qualification, prepositions and adverbs belong. Problems of the relationship between adverbs and
many articles are devoted to prepositions in the Polish language, for example, we cite the collection „Przysłуwki i przyimki.
Studia ze składni i semantyki języka polskiego” [Adverbs and prepositions. Research on Syntax and Semantics
Polish].
2. Secondary prepositions in Polish
The rapid development of secondary prepositions is certainly connected with the essential processes that
occur in the Polish syntactic system over the past decades (it seems that the same
also occurs in other Slavic languages). These processes consist in the "analysis" of the language, i.e. in
transition from synthetic forms to analytical forms. This issue has an extensive literature.
in Polish. See, for example, the works of Danuta Buttler, Janusz Anusiewicz
, Ignacy Wontora and others.
A special manifestation of these changes is a noticeable increase in the elements of a prepositional character,
whose main function in the language is to indicate various semantic and grammatical
relations between the elements of the utterance thus connected. These units are defined as
"secondary (secondary) prepositions". They are units of language, highly specialized in
semantic and syntactically, are characterized by a complex morphological structure: they consist
at least two (or more) syllables. Etymologically, these are most often forms of indirect
cases of a noun or prepositional combinations, i.e. compounds of prepositions with nouns,
adverbs, numerals, pronouns. These are also gerunds used in special contexts (to
what else will we return to).
The status of these units is determined by the presence in their value of a relative sign (indication of
subject-object, local, temporal, and other relations). As part of the proposal, such units are not
occupy an independent syntactic position and are not independent members: they constitute
with a dependent word a single syntactic group. The specificity of the expressions thus established
affects the fact that they have not yet been included in the classification by parts of speech as prepositions.
The indicated properties of these units are considered the basis, on the one hand, for their selection, and, on the other
parties, determining their status and definitions.
The nature of the secondary preposition, its essence in the Polish language, issues of functioning and
further development (it should be emphasized that the class of these units is open) has a rich Rozdil II. Actual problems of morphology

77
literature. In addition to the mentioned works, it is necessary to especially note the monograph and dictionary by Beata Milevskaya „Przyimki
wturne we wspуłczesnej polszczyźnie” (Secondary prepositions in modern Polish) and
Słownik polskich przyimkuw wtürnych (A dictionary of Polish secondary prepositions). B. Milevskoy
the theory of secondary prepositions of the Polish language has also been developed. She details the essence of the secondary
preposition, indicating at the same time the complexity of its definition in the light of the available lexicographical
materials. Thomas Menzel's article Der Ausdruck finaler Relationen durch "secundäre" also deserves attention.
Präpositionen im Polnischen in the Oldenburg collection "Präpositionen im Polnischen" (Prepositions in Polish
language).
In connection with the research of B. Milevskaya, we note the following point. There is no doubt the fact that
context plays a decisive role in assigning a language unit to the class of adverbs or prepositions.
The analyzed fragment of this context is considered either an adverb if it is used without
noun - as an independent member of the sentence, or a preposition if it is not
an independent member of the sentence, appears with the noun with which it enters into connection
management. Therefore, for example, the words blisko, dookoła, pośrodku, obok in the contexts: On mieszka blisko, Drzewa
otaczały dom dookoła, Stуł ustawiono pośrodku, Sklep znajduje się obok are considered adverbs, but in statements:
On mieszka blisko dworca, Dookoła domu rosły drzewa, Stуł ustawiono pośrodku salonu, Sklep znajduje się obok
dworca - the same words are prepositions.
Difficulties arise when we try to determine the linguistic status of expressions like
daleko od, wkrutce po, wraz z, zgodnie z, in which adverbs and
primitive preposition, and which can be considered occasional and free combinations, like,
for example, in expressions with a structure like tłumnie na - przybyć tłumnie na spotkanie (here we have
free combination of the adverb tłumnie and the primary preposition na). The given examples are characterized,
however, with a certain and non-random regularity in use.
In this regard, the question arises whether this mutual coexistence does not indicate the lexicalization
data structures in the preposition function. The question is undoubtedly debatable, which confirms the inconsistency even
among Polonist linguists dealing with this issue. So, for example, the mentioned
M. Grokhovsky considers expressions like odnośnie do ‘as for (what)’ and zgodnie z ‘according to
(what)'. But H. Zgulkova in her work „Funkcje syntaktyczne przyimkуw i wyrażeń przyimkowych we wspуłczesnej
polszczyźnie muwionej” (Syntactic functions of prepositions and prepositional expressions in modern
Polish colloquial speech) does not include constructions of this type in the list of prepositions.
In turn, „Słownik wspуłczesnego języka polskiego” ed. Boguslav Danube (Dictionary
modern Polish) marks with the mark "preposition" of the expression daleko od, (as well as z
dala od and z daleka od), odnośnie do, wraz z, wraz ze, zgodnie z. This class of units also includes the expression
wespуł ‘together with’ (wespуł z rodziną), on the other hand, the word pospołu ‘together with’ is marked as an adverb, although it
appears in a formally very similar context: pospołu z innymi organizacjami ‘together with
other organizations'.
In this situation, it is important to determine the conditions that should characterize the structures
consisting of an adverb and a primitive preposition, in order to classify them in the class of secondary prepositions. AND
B. Milevska is making such a successful attempt, as it seems.
3. About secondary prepositions of adverbial origin
This fragment of observations concerns a question that has not been the object of a separate and
systematic description, although the existence of these units and their prepositional function in Polish
have been noted. This refers to the class of words and expressions whose morphological structure does not cause
doubt.
Here are some examples: Karawana Jakuba była ogromna: składała się z […] jedenastu synуw Jakuba, nie licząc
mnustwa czeladzi wraz z rodzinami (Z. Kosidowski). Bohaterami wojen są wysłannicy stacji telewizyjnych,
przedstawiający problemy płytko, nie uwzględniając niuansуw (“Wprost”). Atlas został uzupełniony o spis wszystkich
nazw utworów powierzchniowych w Układzie Słonecznym (wyłączając Ziemię) (“Rzeczpospolita”). Pomijając koszt
zakupu, instalacji i amortyzacji okaże się, że koszt netto 1 kWh z takiej „elektrowni” jest na poziomie 16 groszy
(“Rzeczpospolita”). Te i inne przeinaczenia służą jednemu celowi: udowodnieniu, że pominąwszy mesjanizm, Absolut i
Marksa ograniczyłem romantyzm do nacjonalizmu ("Polityka"). Pochwalił on bowiem tylko działalność gospodarczą i
socjalną kanclerza III Rzeszy jako socjalisty
(“Rzeczpospolita”).
The expressions highlighted in these statements (nie licząc, nie uwzględniając, wyłączając, pomijając,
pominąwszy, abstrahując od) have the meaning ‘wskazanie na wyłączenie czegoś, jako wyjątku, z zakresu treści
zdania’ [‘an indication of the exclusion of something, as an exception, from the scope of the content of the sentence’] and
are included in the relational synonymic series, the dominant of which is the preposition oprucz ‘except, without’. Such
a synonymous series is formed by prepositions and expressions: oprucz, prуcz, poza, obok, z wyjątkiem, za wyjątkiem,
pomijając, pominąwszy, z pominięciem, nie licząc, nie uwzględniając, nie uwzględniwszy, wyłączając, wyłączywszy,
abstrahując od, z wyłączeniem. This includes the expressions nie włączając, nie muwiąc o, nie biorąc pod LINGUISTIC STUDIES. Issue 17

78
uwagę (potentially za wyłączeniem). (Compare expressions of the type existing in Russian: excluding, not
counting, not taking into account, not taking into account (not taking into account), not including, etc.).
Words like wyłączając, pominąwszy consist of a present/past tense verb stem and
suffixes -ąc, -wszy, that is, they look like gerunds (imiesłowy przysłуwkowe (nieodmienne)). But also in
syntactically, and semantically, their behavior largely does not coincide with
behavior of "regularly" used gerunds. So, the question arises, to which part of speech should they
carry. Moreover, in such situations, refer to the existing dictionaries of the Polish language
impossible. It should be noted that in the available explanatory dictionaries in special articles only
primary prepositions and the indicated expressions in them are either not explained, or are found in articles,
devoted to verbs. An exception for the Polish language should be considered the previously mentioned 2-volume
„Słownik wspуłczesnego języka polskiego” ed. Bohuslav Danube and, in part, the 4-volume "Uniwersalny słownik
języka polskiego” ed. Stanisław Dubish (Universal Dictionary of the Polish Language).
See in the named dictionaries, on the one hand, examples like w celu, w charakterze, w ciągu, w drodze, c tytułu, na
mocy and, on the other hand, examples like tytułem, drogą, mocą, celem.
Returning to the words wyłączając, pominąwszy, we should note the presence in the Polish language of whole nests
more or less synonymous expressions of this type, sometimes including phraseological units (with
negation), see examples above. Most of these expressions are highly lexicalized. In addition, they
often do not have corresponding synonyms among primitive prepositions. For example, the value
constructions with the primary preposition bez do not always coincide semantically with constructions with
expression nie licząc. Danel Weiss speaks more about this in the article „Nowe przyimki o pochodzeniu
imiesłowowym?” (New prepositions of adverbial origin?).
4. Conclusion
The issue of secondary prepositions in Polish (and other Slavic languages) requires further
research. The number of units of this category, its constant development, the status of secondary prepositions and their
functional equivalents in the text create new possibilities and areas of observation. detailed
the semantics of constructions with these units also awaits description. Moreover, an exhaustive analysis of both
individual prepositions and synonymous series will help to identify, on the one hand, the possibility of their
interchangeability and, on the other hand, restrictions on use in certain contexts.

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The present paper outlines the definitions of the preposition as a synsemantic lexical category that can be found
in Polish linguistic literature. Attention has been drawn in particular to secondary prepositions. The role of these items
in the syntactic system of the Polish language, which consists in the moving away from the synthetic forms into the
analytic ones, has been emphasized.
Keywords: preposition, secondary preposition, meaning, adverb, the Polish language.
Expected to the editorial office on 7 April 2008.

Functional parts of speech include prepositions ( przyimki ), unions ( sp ó jniki ), particles ( partyku ł y ).

Prepositions(Przyimki )

Depending on the origin and morphological composition, the prepositions of the Polish language can be divided into three types: a) simple, primary prepositions of the type bez , w , na , above , pod , po , dla , do , przed , za and so on. b) complex prepositions like zza 'because of', spod 'from under', etc., c) secondary prepositions like dooko ł a 'around', dzi ę ki 'thanks to', obok 'Near', wzgl ę dem 'from point of view', zamiast 'instead of', etc. Prepositional-case combinations of the type w ci ą gu 'during', na czele 'headed by', razem 'together with' etc.

Primary prepositions, which are common Slavic in origin, most often coincide with Russian ones in meaning and functioning ( z przyjemno ś ci ą 'with pleasure', przed obiadem 'before dinner', ksi ąż ka dla doros ł ych 'book for adults', etc.). Prepositions differ in Polish and Russian in terms of compatibility with case forms. Some can be combined with only one case, others with two, with three cases ( bez + D . 'without', od + D . 'from' etc., za + D . , za + B . , za + N 'behind'). There may be cases of discrepancy in the use of one or another preposition in Polish and Russian. So, the discrepancy in the use of the preposition do observed in a significant group of verbs and adjectives ( d ąż y ć do czego , do kogo 'to aspire to smth., to smth. ', similar do kogo , czego 'resembling smth., smth.', zwr ó ci ć si ę do kogo 'appeal to smb.', zabiera ć si ę do czego 'take on smth. ', iść do brata 'go to brother', zajrzeć do pokoju 'look into the room', jechać do Warszawy 'to go to Warsaw', etc. Among adverbial combinations, combinations are widely used do + D in the sense of the purpose of the action (przygotowywa ć si ę do egzamin ó w 'prepare for exams' szczoteczka do z ę b ó w 'Toothbrush', ochota do pracy 'desire to work') . Design dla + D . may also have the meaning of the goal, the result being achieved ( dla przyjemno ś ci 'for, for pleasure', dla och ł ody 'to freshen up'), designation of feelings and sensations ( wdzi ę czno ść dla pisarza 'gratitude to the writer'). Combinations za + D . pass various object values ​​( korzysta ć z czego 'to make use of smth. '),spatial values( wsta ć z łóż ku 'get out of bed', wyj ść z domu 'leave the house'). Polish prepositional-case combinations differ significantly in their lexical content za + D . and Russian c + R.p. with the meaning of reason (ze strachu 'out of fear, out of fear', etc. ). Characteristic are the constructions, also evaluative predicative constructions Im.p. + bundle + z + R.p. (K ł amca z ciebie . "You are a liar.").

Construction with time value za + D. has no analogue in modern Russian. The meaning of this combination is to determine the time of action by a person or phenomenon associated with a given time ( za Kazimierza Wielkiego 'in the time of Casimir the Great', za ż ycia 'in life', za moich czas ó w 'in my time' etc. preposition combination o with the form B.p. can have an object value ( prosi ć o kogo , o co 'to ask for whom, about what'), can denote quantitative differences in different types of comparisons (with the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs) ( o dwa lata m ł odszy 'younger by two years', o dwa kroki siedzie ć 'sit two steps away', etc.). za + V.p. with nouns denoting units of time, future tense ( za rock 'in a year', za miesi ą c 'in a month', etc.). The functioning of prepositions can be represented as follows:

Compared to the Russian language, the Polish language has a wider range of complex prepositions used with the genitive case and having meanings of space and time. These prepositions in the Polish language constitute a more complete system that serves to indicate the location of an object in space and the direction of its movement ( ponad rzek ą 'above a river', ponad g ó rami 'high above the mountains, above the mountains', posture rzek ą 'over the river', posture domem 'out of home', popod lodem 'under the ice', wyszed ł zza rogu 'came out from around the corner', spod 'from under', i ść znad rzeki 'go from the river', odej ść przed Drzwi 'get away from the door', wyj ść Spomi ę dzy g ę stych drzew 'get out of the thick trees', spoza 'because of', etc.). Adjectival and verbal combination of a preposition sprzed and R.p. a noun with a temporal meaning denotes the statute of limitations ( fashion sprzed dwudziestu lat 'twenty-year-old fashion').

Secondary prepositions are the result of rethinking the forms of other parts of speech, primarily prepositional-case combinations and adverbs ( wzd ł u ż 'along', podczas 'during', blisko 'close to', skutkem 'as a result', wobec 'in relation to what, in relation to what', etc.).

Unions(Spojniki ),

Unions from a functional-semantic point of view are divided into coordinating and subordinating.

Coordinating conjunctions ( sp ó jniki łą czne ) connect both words and sentences that are in a relationship of equality. Depending on the purpose, they can be divided into several groups: connecting(i And', a 'i, a', oraz ’and also, and’ etc.), adversative(a 'A', ale 'But', jednak 'however', natomiast 'the same, but', Przeciwnie 'opposite, vice versa', etc.), separating(albo 'or', b ą d ź 'or, either', etc.), explanatory(czyli 'or, that is', etc.), effective(wi ę c 'so, therefore', zatem 'thus, thereby', przeto 'therefore, therefore, therefore', tote ż ’and therefore ’ etc.), etc.

Subordinating conjunctions ( spojniki podrzedne ) express a subordinate relationship in a complex sentence and attach subordinate clauses with different subordinating meanings. These are unions time(gdy 'When', soon 'as soon as, only if', dop ó ki ’until, until’ etc.), causes(bo 'because, since', ponywa ż 'since, because' etc.), goals (aby 'to, if only', by 'to', i ż by 'to', etc.), conditions (gdyby 'if', je ś li 'If', je ś liby 'if', etc.), additions(ż e 'What', i ż 'what' etc. ), concessions (cho ć 'Although', cho ć by 'at least (and) ', chocia ż 'Although ', chocia ż by ’at least (and) ’ etc.), etc.

Some conjunctions can attach subordinate clauses with different subordinating meanings. Yes, union ż e "what" can appear in an explanatory clause ( Dobrze ,ż e ś przyszed ł. "It's good that you came."), a relative clause of degree ( Tak mnie boli , ż e spa ć nie could ę. “It hurts so much that I can’t sleep.”), in the attributive clause ( Uderzy ł wiatr z so ą si łą,ż e a ż chojary przygi ęł y si ę do ziemi . "The wind hit with such force that even the old spruces ducked to the ground."), in the subordinate reason ( Na ł owy zje ż d ż a ł tu , ż e bory blisko . “He came here to hunt, since there is a forest nearby.”), in the subordinate investigation ( Przywaliło go drzewo w liesie, że ledwo na pół żywy powrócił do domu. “A tree crushed him in the forest, so that he returned home barely alive.”), etc. . Unions are the most specialized bo 'because', je ż eli 'If', cho ć ’ although ’ etc. Subordinating conjunctions can be used in a simple sentence by adding words and phrases ( Stary cho ć jeszcze krzepki gospodarz ... "An old, though still strong master...").

Particles(partyku ł y )

Particles include service words with different functions, meanings, varying degrees of semantic, phonetic independence. The category of particles in the Polish language is traditionally classified as:

1) morpheme particles that have grammatical meaning and serve to form word forms, this is a) a particle by , which is an indicator of the subjunctive mood, as well as an inseparable component of unions ż eby , aby etc., particle niech - index imperative mood, particle ni - component of negative pronouns ( nikogo , nigzie etc.), components of pronouns - ś , - kol wiek ,lada ,b ą d ź (who ś 'someone, somebody', ktokolwiek 'someone' lada who 'anyone who is horrible', who b ą d ź 'someone', etc. ) ;

2) Reinforcing particle type no , ż e /ż, ci , to , Przecie ż (We ź cie no si ę do roboty . "Finally start working." Zrobze ! "Do it!");

3) negative particle nie(Nic nie rozumiem. "I do not understand anything.");

4) interrogative particles like czy 'li', albo ’is it ’, czy ż by ’is it ’, etc. ( Czy on so powiedzia ł? "Did he say so?" Albo mi to m ó wiono ? « Did they tell me about it?”), etc.

The Polish linguistic tradition refers to particles as introductory words with a modal meaning of the type mo ż e 'May be', chyba 'perhaps' oczwi ś cie 'of course', etc.

Interjection(Wykrzykniki )

Interjections express the emotional-volitional reactions of a person to external urges or impulses, or imitate various characteristic sounds made by people, animals or objects.

Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech in that they do not have the function of naming, the meaning of interjections can only be understood from the context. At the same time, interjections are not members of the sentence, they occupy an isolated position in it.

Most verbalized interjections come from onomatopoeia ( Palma si ę zachybota ł a . I brzd ę k na ziemi ę! “The palm tree swayed. And hit the ground!" A wtem urwis-bęc ją w łeb kamieniem. "At this time, the mischievous - clap on the forehead with a stone"). Some of the interjections were formed from verbal roots ( hop , 'jump', chlup 'slurp', ciach 'bang, bang, tyap' (colloquial), trzask 'clap, fuck', etc.). In the Polish linguistic tradition, interjections that act as a predicate are usually called after Z. Klemensevich " interjectional verbs» ( czasowniki wykrzyknikowe), and S. Jodlovsky defines them as “ non-inflectional personal verbs»( czasowniki nieflexyjne osobowe). The so-called. vocative or vocative interjections used to attract attention.

The morphological system is characterized by the presence of a category of a male person (personality), the use of alternations in the formation of grammatical forms, the absence of specific short predicative forms of adjectives and participles. Forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs are non-homonymous. Personal and possessive pronouns have full and short (enclitic) forms. Numerals have a special type of declension. In the verb, the forms of the past, long past, future tenses are based on the participial form on - l with personal scores. There is a verb name and a special indefinite personal form and a generalized personal form.