Navigation stars
stars of visible magnitude, used by navigators and pilots when determining the location of ships and aircraft beyond the visibility of earthly landmarks.
Dictionary of Architectural Terms.. EdwART. 2011.
See what “Navigation stars” are in other dictionaries:
Navigation stars- stars of the 1st to 3rd apparent magnitude, used by navigators and pilots when determining the location of ships and aircraft beyond the visibility of earthly landmarks. Ephemerides are given for these stars in the Marine Astronomical Yearbook... ... Marine Dictionary
Navigation stars- stars of visible magnitude, used by navigators and pilots when determining the location of ships and aircraft beyond the visibility of earthly landmarks. Source: Architectural Dictionary... Construction dictionary
Twilight- This term has other meanings, see Twilight (meanings) ... Wikipedia
constellations- areas of the starry sky, allocated for ease of orientation on the celestial sphere and designation of stars. The entire sky is divided into 88 constellations, they bear the names of mythical heroes (for example, Hercules, Perseus), animals (Leo, Giraffe), objects (Libra, Lyra)... encyclopedic Dictionary
Andromeda Nebula (novel)- Andromeda Nebula Cover of the first magazine publication ... Wikipedia
History of cartography- Cartography (from ancient Greek χάρτης “charter, sheet of papyrus” and γράφω “I write”), or the science of research, modeling and display of the spatial arrangement, combination and interrelation of objects and phenomena of nature and society, is ... ... Wikipedia
Nokra (base)- Dahlak Nokra Archipelago, naval base of the USSR Navy in Ethiopia (Red Sea) from 1977 to ... Wikipedia
Ajax (football club, Amsterdam)- This term has other meanings, see Ajax. Ajax ... Wikipedia
Zarya- This term has other meanings, see Dawn (meanings). Dawn on the sea Dawn the glow of the sky before sunrise and after sunset ... Wikipedia
Ajax (football club)- Ajax ( football club, Amsterdam) Ajax Full name Amsterdamsch ... Wikipedia
Books
- Guiding stars. Navigation Secrets of the Pacific Islanders, D. Lewis. When it comes to the elements, we have a lot to learn from those who spend their entire lives in close proximity to them. David Lewis, the famous scientist, traveler and writer, described...
Currently, the brightest and most easily identifiable ones are used as navigational ones - the Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn and 26 stars.
At the highest point in the sky, the sun points south. The sun can act like a clock.
It takes the sun four minutes to move one degree of longitude from east to west (in the northern hemisphere, in the southern hemisphere the sun moves in the opposite direction). Sundial at the same longitude (on the same meridian) they show the same time.
The most characteristic features by which navigation stars are found are the configurations of the constellations, the relative position and apparent brightness of the stars.
According to the decision of the International Astronomical Union, the entire sky is divided into 88 constellation areas, of which more than 60 can be visible from the territory of the former USSR.
The navigation stars include the following (navigation stars for the Northern Hemisphere are in bold):
- Alferats(Andromeda alpha)
- Polar(alpha M. Ursa)
- Aliot(epsilon Big Bear)
- Regulus(Leo alpha)
- Deneb(alpha Cygnus)
- Fomalhaut(alpha Southern Pisces)
- Antares(alpha Scorpio)
- Pollux(Gemini beta)
- Spica(Virgo alpha)
- Betelgeuse(alpha Orion)
- Aldebaran(alpha Taurus)
- Altair(alpha Eagle)
- Procyon(alpha M. Dog)
- Rigel(beta Orion)
- Arcturus(alpha Bootes)
- Chapel(alpha Auriga)
- Vega(alpha Lyra)
- Sirius(alpha B.Dog)
- Canopus (Alpha Argo)
- Achernar (Alpha Eridani)
- Alpha Centauri
- beta Southern Cross
- alpha of the Southern Triangle
- Epsilon Sagittarius
- Peacock (alpha Peacock)
- Hamal (Aries alpha)
The point directly above your head is called Zenith. An imaginary line running from the southern point of the horizon through the Zenith to the northern point on the horizon is called Meridian. The Sun, Moon and all the stars and planets rise to the eastern side of the meridian, cross the Meridian and are located on the western side of the meridian. Ancient term A.M.(from the Latin word, ante meridiem, or before the meridian) refers to the first half of daylight before the sun crosses the meridian. Term P.M. (post meridiem) refers to the afternoon, after the sun crosses the Meridian.
The line connecting the North and South Poles is the Earth's axis of rotation. For navigation, the most interesting star is Polaris, which points to the celestial pole. Since the Earth's North Pole is directed toward the north, it does not rise or set, but stands in the same place above the northern horizon all night. All the other stars in the sky slowly revolve around it. This movement is not noticeable from minute to minute, but you can see it within an hour or with a long exposure. The North Star is quite bright and therefore serves as a beacon pointing north.
The North Star shows your latitude. The angle of Polaris above the northern horizon (measured in degrees) is equal to latitude (the number of degrees north of the equator). However, at the North Pole, Polaris is directly overhead and the stars move in concentric circles parallel to the horizon. Elsewhere on the equator, the North Star is low on the Northern horizon, and the stars rise due east and point due west.
An abyss has opened, full of stars,
The stars have no number, the abyss has no bottom.
The lips of the wise tell us:
There are many different worlds there,
Countless suns are burning there,
There are peoples and a circle of centuries.
M.V. Lomonosov
Our Earth, 8 more large planets and many small ones (asteroids) are part of the solar system, the center of which is the star Sun. In the Solar System, it is convenient to measure distances in astronomical units - the average distance from the Earth to the Sun (» 150 million km). But even the closest stars are at such great distances from the Sun that astronomers have introduced new units: light year » 9.46. 10 -12 km (how much a ray of light travels in a year) and parsec » 3.26 light. of the year.
All the stars and the Sun visible in the sky are part of our star system, called the Galaxy or the Milky Way system.
Our galactic system is made up of stars various types, star clusters and associations, gas and dust nebulae, clouds of interstellar gas, scattered cosmic particles and individual atoms. All these elements are dynamically linked into a single system.
On a clear, cloudless night, a wide light stripe is clearly visible in the sky. This is the Milky Way, which appears as a giant arch spanning the entire sky and rising high above the horizon. The continuous radiance of the Milky Way is caused by the light of a huge number of faint stars far from us, merging into one luminous belt. The Milky Way covers the entire starry sky in a continuous ring and throughout its entire length has different widths, different brightnesses and variable outlines. It passes through the constellations: Unicorn, Canis Minor, Orion, Gemini, Taurus, Auriga, Perseus, Giraffe, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Cepheus, Lizards, Cygnus, Chanterelle, Lyra, Arrow, Eagle, Shield, Sagittarius, Ophiuchus, Corona Southern, Scorpio , Square, Wolf, Southern Triangle, Centaur, Southern Cross, Fly, Keel, Sails and Stern. The center line of the Milky Way is a large circle inclined to the plane of the celestial equator at an angle of 62°.
Our Galaxy contains about 150 billion stars. The bulk of the stars in the Galaxy that form the Milky Way are located near the galactic plane.
Our Sun is located near the galactic plane. The shape of the Galaxy resembles a biconvex lens. There are more stars in the central parts of the Galaxy, and fewer on the outskirts. The diameter of the Galaxy in its main galactic plane is about 86,000 light years. The distance from the Sun to the center of the Galaxy is 26,000 light years, and to the edge is about 16,600 light years.
The core (center) of the Galaxy is located in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. The structure of the Galaxy is similar to extragalactic spiral nebulae.
Obeying the law of universal gravitation, all stars, including the Sun and planets, revolve around the center of gravity of the Galaxy. The movements of stars in the Galaxy resemble the movements of planets around the Sun - the further away from the center of rotation, the slower the movement. The Sun moves in its orbit around the center of the Galaxy at an average speed of about 250 km/sec and completes a full revolution in about 260 million years.
The distance to the closest and similar galaxy in the constellation Andromeda is 750,000 light years. years. (“The Andromeda Nebula” is visible to the eye in the form of a speck).
To determine the position of the ship and correct the compass in navigation, the brightest, so-called navigation stars, are used. The brightness of stars is characterized by their magnitude, with the brightest of them having a negative magnitude, and the less bright ones having a zero and then a positive magnitude. The magnitudes of the 159 brightest navigation stars, as well as 4 planets, are given in MAE. The brightest star Sirius has a magnitude of 1.6, the Polar star +2.1, the faintest stars still visible to the naked eye are +6.
In ancient times, many stars were grouped into groups called constellations. The origin of the names of most of them is associated with ancient legends. The brightest stars included in the constellations are designated by letters of the Greek alphabet and also have their own names. (see table).
A separate insert in the MAE contains a map of the starry sky, divided into three parts. The first map shows stars with declination d from 30 to 90°N, the second - from 30 to 90°S, and the third, which includes the equatorial zone, from 60°N to 60°S.
The navigator must be able to navigate the starry sky and correctly determine the names of the stars. In practice, to obtain the position of the ship, it is enough to know ~ 20 of the brightest stars.
List of nautical star names
| N Russia MAE MAE | Russian name | Latin name | N Naut.Alman. | Stellar magnitude | Russian constellations | Latin constellations |
| Acrux | Acrux | 1.1 | a Southern Cross | a Crucis | ||
| Aliot | Alioth | 1.7 | e B. Ursa | e Ursac Majoris | ||
| Al Nair | Al Na¢ir | 2.2 | a Crane | a Gruis | ||
| Aldebaran | Aldebaran | 1.1 | a Taurus | a Tauri | ||
| Altair | Altair | 0.9 | a Eagle | aAquilae | ||
| Alfacca | Alphecca | 2.3 | a Northern Crown | a Coronas Bovealis | ||
| Alphard | Alphard | 2.2 | a Hydras | a Hydrae | ||
| Alferas | Alpheratz | 2.2 | aAndromeda | a Andromedae | ||
| Antares | Antares | 1.2 | a Scorpio | a Scorpii | ||
| Arcturus | Arcturus | 0,2 | a Bootes | a Bootis | ||
| Atria | Atria | 1.9 | a South Triangular | a Trianq. Aust | ||
| Achernar | Achernar | 0.6 | a Eridani | a Eridani | ||
| Betelgeuse | Betelgense | 0.1- 1.2 | a Orion | a Orionis | ||
| Vega | Vtga | 0.1 | a Lira | a Lyrae | ||
| Deneb | Deneb | 1.3 | a Swan | a Cygni | ||
| Denebola | Denebola | 2.2 | b Leo | b Leonis | ||
| Dubbe | Dubhe | 2.0 | a B. Ursa | a Ursee Majoris | ||
| Zhaula | Shaula | 1.7 | l Scorpio | l Scorpii | ||
| Canopus | Canopus | -0.9 | a Argo | a Carinae (argo) | ||
| Chapel | Capella | 0.2 | a Charioteer | a Anrigae | ||
| Miaplacidus | Miaplacidus | 1.8 | b Argo | b Carinae (argo) | ||
| Cuff | Kaph | 2.4 | b Cassiopeia | b Cassiopeiae | ||
| Mimosa | Mimosa | 1.5 | b Southern Cross | b Crucis | ||
| Markab | Markab | 2.6 | a Pegasus | a Pegasi | ||
| Mirfak | Mirfak | 1.9 | a Perseus | a Persei | ||
| Nunki | Nunki | 2.1 | t Sagittarius | t Sagittariis | ||
| Peacock | Peacock | 2.1 | a Peacock | a Pavonis | ||
| Pollux | Pollux | 1.2 | b Gemini | b Geminorum | ||
| Procyon | Procyon | 0.5 | a Small Dog | a Canis Minoris | ||
| Rasalhague | Rasalhague | 2.1 | a Ophiuchus | a Ophiuchi | ||
| Regulus | Regulus | 1.3 | a Leo | a Leonis | ||
| Rigel | Rigel | 0.3 | b Orion | b Orionis | ||
| Rigil-Centaur | Rigil-Kentaurus | 0.1- 1.7 | a Centauri | a Centauri | ||
| Sirius | Sirius | -1.6 | a Big Dog | a Canis Majoris | ||
| Spica | Spica | 1.2 | a Virgo | a Virginis | ||
| Vomolhout | Fomalhaut | 1.3 | a South Pisces | a Piscis Aust | ||
| Hadar | Hadar | 0.9 | b Centauri | b Centauri | ||
| Hamal | Hamal | 2.2 | a Aries | a Arctis | ||
| Shedar Polar | Schedar Polaris | 2.5 2.1 | a Cassiopeia a Ursa Minor. | a Cassiopeiae a Ursae Minoris |
The picture of the starry sky, which can be observed on a clear, cloudless night, contains about 3,000 stars - a tiny fraction of the 150 million stars in our Galaxy.
For navigation purposes, from the entire set of luminaries, use a small part of them - the brightest stars, planets, as well as the Sun and Moon.
Of the 9 planets of the solar system, those that are visible to the naked eye are of interest: Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn; they are called navigational.
A list of 160 navigation stars is given in many manuals and documents, for example: MAE, Nautical tables (MT-2000), MAL.
There are 25-30 stars that are the brightest and most convenient for determining the location of the ship, which facilitates the task of identifying them in the sky.
Navigation stars are identified primarily by the configuration of the constellations in which they are located. In northern latitudes, it is most convenient to start orienting by the stars by finding in the northern half of the sky the well-known constellation Ursa Major, which resembles the outline of a bucket. Next, having connected the outer stars of the bucket calamus Ursa Major (Dubhe and Msrak) with a conditional line, you should postpone the resulting segment 5 times, at the end of this extended line you will find the Ursa Minor - the Polar Star. The North Star is located almost at the point of the north celestial pole, so the direction towards it corresponds to the direction north (N), and the height of the North Star above the horizon corresponds to the geographic latitude (cf) of the observer (Fig. 6.1).
In some cases, it is more convenient to use the Orion constellation as a reference constellation (Fig. 6.2).
In the northwestern regions of Russia at the beginning of winter, this constellation in the form of a powerful narrowed quadrangle with a characteristic oblique belt is located in the southern part of the sky. To the north of Orion are the constellations Taurus, Auriga and Gemini, to the west and southwest are the constellations Canis Minor and Canis Major. The brightest stars of these constellations are Rigel, Betelgeuse, Aldebaran, Capella, Castor, Pollux, Procyon and Sirius.
Another important sign of star identification is the apparent brightness (brilliance) of the star. The brightness of a star is estimated by its “apparent magnitude” m, given in reference books. Brightness m = 0 has very bright stars (for example, Vega and Arcturus); the brightest star Sirius has a magnitude of m= -2. Stars with magnitude m = 2 are six times fainter in brilliance than stars with m = 0. On star maps and a star globe, the brilliance of stars is shown by the size of their images.
An additional sign of identifying stars is their color. The following colors are available: blue, white, orange, yellow, red, dark yellow.
A significant aid in identifying luminaries is the use of a star globe.
CHAPTER 5 STARS AND CONSTELLATIONS
Stars(in Greek “ sidus” (Photo. 5.1.) - luminous celestial bodies, the luminosity of which is maintained by thermonuclear reactions occurring in them. Giordano Bruno taught in the 16th century that stars are distant bodies like the Sun. In 1596, the German astronomer Fabricius discovered the first variable star, and in 1650, the Italian scientist Riccoli discovered the first double star.
Among the stars of our Galaxy there are younger stars (they are, as a rule, located in the thin disk of the Galaxy) and older ones (which are almost evenly distributed in the central spherical volume of the Galaxy).
Photo. 5.1. Stars.
Visible stars. Not all stars are visible from Earth. This is due to the fact that under normal conditions only ultraviolet rays longer than 2900 angstroms reach Earth from Space. About 6,000 stars are visible in the sky with the naked eye, since the human eye can distinguish stars only up to +6.5 apparent magnitude.
Stars up to +20 apparent magnitude are observed by all astronomical observatories. The largest telescope in Russia “sees” stars up to +26 magnitude. Hubble Telescope – up to +28.
The total number of stars, according to research, is 1000 per 1 square degree of the Earth's starry sky. These are stars up to +18 apparent magnitude. Smaller ones are still difficult to detect due to the lack of appropriate equipment with high resolution.
In total, about 200 new stars are formed in the Galaxy per year. For the first time in astronomical research, stars began to be photographed in the 80s of the 19th century. It should be noted that research has been and is being carried out only in certain areas of the sky.
Some of the last serious studies of the starry sky were carried out in 1930-1943 and were associated with the search for the ninth planet Pluto and new planets. Now the search for new stars and planets has resumed. For this, the latest telescopes* are used, for example the space telescope named after. Hubble, installed in April 1990 on the space station (USA). It allows you to see very faint stars (up to +28 magnitude).
*In Chile on Mount Paranal, 2.6 km high. a combined telescope with a diameter of 8 m is installed. Radio telescopes (a set of several telescopes) are being mastered. Now they use “complex” telescopes, which combine several mirrors (6x1.8 m) with a total diameter of 10 m in one telescope. In 2012, NASA plans to launch an infrared telescope into Earth orbit to observe distant galaxies.
At the Earth's poles, the stars in the sky never go beyond the horizon. At all other latitudes the stars set. At the latitude of Moscow (56 degrees north latitude), any star that has a culminating altitude of less than 34 degrees above the horizon already belongs to the southern sky.
5.1. Navigation stars.
26 large stars of the earth's sky are navigational, that is, the stars with the help of which in aviation, navigation and astronautics they determine the location and course of a ship. 18 navigation stars are located in the Northern hemisphere of the sky and 5 stars in the Southern hemisphere (among them, the second largest after the Sun is the star Sirius). These are the brightest stars in the sky (up to about +2nd magnitude).
In the northern hemisphere About 5000 stars are observed in the sky. Among them are 18 navigation ones: Polar, Arcturus, Vega*, Capella, Aliot, Pollux, Altair, Regulus, Aldebaran, Deneb, Betelgeuse, Procyon, Alpherats (or alpha Andromeda). In the northern hemisphere, Polar (or Kinosura) is located - this is the alpha of Ursa Minor.
*There is some unconfirmed evidence that the pyramids found underground at a distance of approximately 7 meters from the surface of the earth in the Crimea region (and then in many other areas of the Earth, including the Pamirs) are oriented towards 3 stars: Vega, Canopus and Capella. Thus, the pyramids of the Himalayas and the Bermuda Triangle are oriented towards the Chapel. On Vega - Mexican pyramids. And on Canopus - Egyptian, Crimean, Brazilian and Easter Island pyramids. It is believed that these pyramids are a kind of space antennas. The stars, located at an angle of 120 degrees relative to each other, (according to Doctor of Technical Sciences, Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences N. Melnikov) create electromagnetic moments that affect the location of the earth’s axis, and, possibly, the rotation of the earth itself.
South Pole seems more multistarred than Northern, but it does not stand out with any bright star. Five stars of the Southern sky are navigational: Sirius, Rigel, Spica, Antares, Fomalhaut. The closest star to the South Pole of the world is Octanta (from the constellation Octanta). The main decoration of the Southern sky is the constellation of the Southern Cross. Constellations whose stars are visible at the South Pole include: Canis Major, Hare, Crow, Chalice, Southern Pisces, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Scorpio, Scutum.
5.2. Catalog of stars.
A catalog of stars in the southern sky in 1676-1678 was compiled by E. Halley. The catalog contained 350 stars. It was supplemented in 1750-1754 by N. Louis De Lacaille to 42 thousand stars, 42 nebulae of the southern sky and 14 new constellations.
Modern star catalogs are divided into 2 groups:
- fundamental catalogs - contain several hundred stars with the highest accuracy in determining their positions;
- star views.
In 1603, the German astronomer I. Breier proposed designating the brightest stars of each constellation with the letters of the Greek alphabet in descending order of their apparent brightness: a (alpha), ß (beta), γ (gamma), d (delta), e (epsilon), ξ (zeta), ή (eta), θ (theta), ί (iota), κ (kappa), λ (lambda), μ (mi), υ (ni), ζ (xi), o (omicron), π (pi), ρ (rho), σ (sigma), τ (tau), ν (upsilon), φ (phi), χ (chi), ψ (psi), ω (omega). The brightest star in the constellation is designated a (alpha), the faintest star is designated ω (omega).
The Greek alphabet soon became insufficient, and the lists continued with the Latin alphabet: a, d, c…y, z; as well as in capital letters from R to Z or from A to Q. Then in the 18th century, a numerical designation was introduced (in ascending right ascension). They usually denote variable stars. Sometimes double designations are used, for example, 25 f Taurus.
The stars also bear the names of the astronomers who first described their unique properties. These stars are identified by a number in the astronomer's catalogue. For example, Leyten-837 (Leyten is the name of the astronomer who created the catalog; 837 is the number of the star in this catalogue).
Historical names of stars are also used (according to P.G. Kulikovsky’s count there are 275 of them). Often these names are associated with the name of their constellations, for example, Octant. Moreover, several dozen of the brightest or main stars of the constellation also have own names, for example, Sirius (Alpha Canis Major), Vega (Alpha Lyra), Polaris (Alpha Ursa Minor). According to statistics, 15% of stars have Greek names, 55% have Latin names. The rest are Arabic in etymology (linguistic, and most names are Greek in origin), and only a few were given in modern times.
Some stars have several names due to the fact that each people called them differently. For example, Sirius was called Canicula (“Dog Star”) by the Romans, “Tear of Isis” by the Egyptians, and Voljaritsa by the Croats.
In catalogs of stars and galaxies, stars and galaxies are designated together with a serial number by a conventional index: M, NQС, ZС. The index indicates a specific catalog, and the number indicates the number of the star (or galaxy) in that catalog.
As mentioned above, the following directories are usually used:
- M— catalog of the French astronomer Messier (1781);
- NGWITH— “New General Catalog” or “New General Catalog”, compiled by Dreyer based on the old Herschel catalogs (1888);
- ZWITH— two additional volumes to the “New General Catalog”.
5.3. Constellations
The oldest mention of constellations (in constellation maps) was discovered in 1940 in the rock paintings of the caves of Lascaux (France) - the age of the drawings is about 16.5 thousand years and El Castillo (Spain) - the age of the drawings is 14 thousand years. They depict 3 constellations: the Summer Triangle, the Pleiades and the Northern Crown.
In Ancient Greece, 48 constellations were already depicted in the sky. In 1592, P. Plancius added 3 more to them. In 1600, I. Gondius added 11 more. In 1603, I. Bayer released a star atlas with artistic engravings of all new constellations.
Until the 19th century, the sky was divided into 117 constellations, but in 1922, at the International Conference on Astronomical Research, the entire sky was divided into 88 strictly defined areas of the sky - constellations, which included the brightest stars of this constellation (see Chapter 5.11.). In 1935, by decision of the Astronomical Society, their boundaries were clearly defined. Of the 88 constellations, 31 are located in the northern sky, 46 - in the southern and 11 - in the equatorial sky, these are: Andromeda, Pump, Bird of Paradise, Aquarius, Eagle, Altar, Aries, Charioteer, Bootes, Incisor, Giraffe, Cancer, Canes Venatici, Major Canis Minor, Capricorn, Carina, Cassiopeia, Centaurus, Cepheus, Whale, Chameleon, Compasses, Dove, Coma Berenice, Southern Crown, Northern Crown, Raven, Chalice, Southern Cross, Swan, Dolphin, Dorado, Dragon , Small Horse, Eridanus, Furnace, Gemini, Crane, Hercules, Clock, Hydra, Southern Hydra, Indian, Lizard, Lion, Small Lion, Hare, Libra, Wolf, Lynx, Lyre, Table Mountain, Microscope, Unicorn, Fly, Square , Octant, Ophiuchus, Orion, Peacock, Pegasus, Perseus, Phoenix, Painter, Pisces, Southern Fish, Poop, Compass, Grid, Arrow, Sagittarius, Scorpio, Sculptor, Shield, Snake, Sextant, Taurus, Telescope, Triangle, Southern Triangle , Toucan, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Sails, Virgo, Flying Fish, Chanterelle.
Zodiac constellations(or zodiac, zodiac circle)(from Greek Ζωδιακός - “ animal") are the constellations that the Sun passes across the sky in one year (according to ecliptic- the apparent path of the Sun among the stars). There are 12 such constellations, but the Sun also passes through the 13th constellation - the constellation Ophiuchus. But according to ancient tradition, it is not classified among the zodiac constellations (Fig. 5.2. “Movement of the Earth along the zodiac constellations”).
The zodiacal constellations are not the same in size, and the stars in them are far from each other and are not connected in any way. The proximity of the stars in the constellation is only visible. For example, the constellation Cancer is 4 times smaller than the constellation Aquarius, and the Sun passes it in less than 2 weeks. Sometimes one constellation seems to overlap another (for example, the constellations Capricorn and Aquarius. When the Sun moves from the constellation Scorpio to the constellation Sagittarius (from November 30 to December 18), it touches the “leg” of Ophiuchus). More often, one constellation is quite far from another, and only a section of the sky (space) is divided between them.
Back in Ancient Greece The zodiacal constellations were allocated to a special group and each of them was assigned its own sign. Nowadays the mentioned signs are not used to identify zodiac constellations; they apply only in astrology for notation zodiac signs . The points of spring (constellation Aries) and autumn (Libra) were also designated by the signs of the corresponding constellations. equinoxes and points of summer (Cancer) and winter (Capricorn) solstices. Due to precession These points have moved from the mentioned constellations over the past more than 2 thousand years, but the designations assigned to them by the ancient Greeks have been preserved. They shifted accordingly zodiac signs, tied in Western astrology to the point of the vernal equinox, so that the correspondence between There are no coordinates from stars or signs. There is also no correspondence between the dates of the entry of the Sun into the zodiacal constellations and the corresponding zodiac signs (Table 5.1. “Annual movement of the Earth and the Sun along the constellations”).
Rice. 5.2. The movement of the Earth according to the constellations of the zodiac
The modern boundaries of the zodiacal constellations do not correspond to the division of the ecliptic into twelve equal parts accepted in astrology. They were established at the Third General Assembly International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1928 (which established the boundaries of 88 modern constellations). At the moment the ecliptic also crosses the constellations e Ophiuchus (however, traditionally, Ophiuchus is not considered a zodiac constellation), and the limits of the Sun’s location within the boundaries of the constellations can be from seven days (constellation Scorpio ) up to one month sixteen days (constellation Virgos).
Geographical names preserved: Tropic of Cancer (Northern Tropic), Tropic of Capricorn (South Tropic) is parallels , on which the top climax points of the summer and winter solstices, respectively, occurs at zenith
Constellations Scorpio and Sagittarius are fully visible in the southern regions of Russia, the rest - throughout its territory.
Aries— A small zodiac constellation, according to mythological ideas, depicts the Golden Fleece that Jason was looking for. The brightest stars are Gamal (2m, variable, orange), Sheratan (2.64m, variable, white), Mesartim (3.88m, double, white).
Table 5.1. Annual movement of the Earth and Sun through the constellations
| Zodiac constellations | Residence Earth in the constellations (day, month) |
Residence Sun in the constellations (day, month) |
||
| Actual (astronomical) |
Conditional (astrological) |
Actual (astronomical) |
Conditional (astrological) |
|
Sagittarius |
17.06-19.07 | 22.05-21.06 | 17.12-19.01 | 22.11-21.12 |
| Capricorn | 20.07-15.08 | 21.06-22.07 | 19.01-15.02 | 22.12-20.01 |
| Aquarius | 16.08-11.09 | 23.07-22.08 | 15.02-11.03 | 20.01-17.02 |
| Fish | 12.09-18.10 | 23.08-22.09 | 11.03-18.04 | 18.02-20.03 |
| Aries | 19.10-13.11 | 23.09-22.10 | 18.04-13.05 | 20.03-20.04 |
| Taurus | 14.11-20.12 | 23.10-21.11 | 13.05-20.06 | 20.04-21.05 |
| Twins | 21.12-20.01 | 22.11-21.12 | 20.06-20.07 | 21.05-21.06 |
| Cancer | 21.01-10.02 | 22.12-20.01 | 20.07-10.08 | 21.06-22.07 |
| a lion | 11.02-16.03 | 21.01-19.02 | 10.08-16.09 | 23.07-22.08 |
| Virgo | 17.03-30.04 | 20.02-21.03 | 16.09-30.10 | 23.08-22.09 |
| Scales | 31.04-22.05 | 22.03-20.04 | 30.10-22.11 | 23.09-23.10 |
| Scorpion | 23.05-29.05 | 21.04-21.05 | 22.11-29.11 | 23.10-22.11 |
| Ophiuchus* | 30.05-16.06 | — | 29.11-16.12 | — |
* The constellation Ophiuchus is not included in the zodiac.
Taurus— A prominent zodiac constellation associated with the head of the bull. The brightest star in the constellation, Aldebaran (0.87m), is surrounded by the Hyades open star cluster, but does not belong to it. The Pleiades is another beautiful star cluster in Taurus. In total, there are fourteen stars in the constellation brighter than 4th magnitude. Optical binary stars: Theta, Delta and Kappa Tauri. Cepheid SZ Tau. Eclipsing variable star Lambda Tauri. Taurus also contains the Crab Nebula, a remnant of a supernova that exploded in 1054. In the center of the nebula is a star with m=16.5.
Twins (Gemini) - The two brightest stars in Gemini - Castor (1.58m, double, white) and Pollux (1.16m, orange) - are named after the twins of classical mythology. Variable stars: Eta Gemini (m=3.1, dm=0.8, spectroscopic double, eclipsing variable), Zeta Gemini. Double stars: Kappa and Mu Gemini. Open star cluster NGC 2168, planetary nebula NGC2392.
Cancer (Cancer) - Mythological constellation, reminiscent of a crab crushed by the foot of Hercules during the battle with Hydra. The stars are small, with none of the stars exceeding 4th magnitude, although the Manger star cluster (3.1m) at the center of the constellation can be seen with the naked eye. Zeta Cancer is a multiple star (A: m=5.7, yellow; B: m=6.0, goal, spectroscopic double; C: m=7.8). Double star Iota Cancer.
a lion (Leo) - The outline created by the brightest stars of this large and prominent constellation vaguely resembles the figure of a lion in profile. There are ten stars brighter than 4th magnitude, the brightest of which are Regulus (1.36m, variable, blue, double) and Denebola (2.14m, variable, white). Double stars: Gamma Leo (A: m=2.6, orange; B: m=3.8, yellow) and Iota Leo. The constellation Leo contains numerous galaxies, including five from the Messier catalog (M65, M66, M95, M96 and M105).
Virgo (Virgo) - Zodiac constellation, the second largest in the sky. The brightest stars are Spica (0.98m, variable, blue), Vindemiatrix (2.85m, yellow). In addition, the constellation includes seven stars brighter than 4th magnitude. The constellation contains a rich and relatively close cluster of galaxies in Virgo. Eleven of the brightest galaxies located within the boundaries of the constellation are included in the Messier catalog.
Scales (Libra) - The stars of this constellation previously belonged to Scorpio, which follows Libra in the Zodiac. The constellation Libra is one of the least visible constellations of the Zodiac, only five of its stars are brighter than 4th magnitude. The brightest are Zuben el Shemali (2.61m, variable, blue) and Zuben el Genubi (2.75m, variable, white).
Scorpion (Scorpius) - A large bright constellation of the southern part of the zodiac. The brightest star in the constellation is Antares (1.0m, variable, red, double, bluish satellite). The constellation contains another 16 stars brighter than 4th magnitude. Star clusters: M4, M7, M16, M80.
Sagittarius (Sagittarius) - The southernmost zodiac constellation. In Sagittarius, behind the star clouds, lies the center of our Galaxy (Milky Way). Sagittarius is a large constellation containing many bright stars, including 14 stars brighter than 4th magnitude. It contains many star clusters and diffuse nebulae. Thus, the Messier catalog includes 15 objects assigned to the constellation Sagittarius - more than to any other constellation. These include the Lagoon Nebula (M8), the Trifid Nebula (M20), the Omega Nebula (M17) and the globular cluster M22, the third brightest in the sky. The open star cluster M7 (more than 100 stars) can be seen with the naked eye.
Capricorn (Capricornus) — The brightest stars are Deneb Algedi (2.85m, white) and Dabi (3.05m, white). ShZS M30 is located near Xi Capricorn.
Aquarius (Aquarius) - Aquarius is one of the largest constellations. The brightest stars are Sadalmelik (2.95m, yellow) and Sadalsuud (2.9m, yellow). Double stars: Zeta (A: m=4.4; B: m=4.6; physical pair, yellowish) and Beta Aquarius. SHZ NGC 7089, nebulae NGC7009 (“Saturn”) NGC7293 (“Helix”).
Fish (Pisces) - A large but weak zodiac constellation. Three bright stars are only 4th magnitude. The main star is Alrisha (3.82m, spectroscopic binary, physical pair, bluish).
5.4. Structure and composition of stars
Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky said about stars that they are “centers of maximum concentration of matter and energy in the Galaxy.”
Composition of stars. If previously it was argued that stars consist of gas, now they are saying that they are super-dense cosmic objects with enormous mass. It is assumed that the matter from which the first stars and galaxies were formed consisted mainly of hydrogen and helium with a slight admixture of other elements. Stars are heterogeneous in their structure. Studies have shown that all stars are composed of the same chemical elements, the only difference is in their percentage.
It is assumed that the analogue of a star is ball lightning*, in the center of which there is a core (point source) surrounded by a plasma shell. The boundary of the shell is a layer of air.
*Ball lightning rotates and glows with all radii colors, has a weight of 10 -8 kg.
Volume of stars. The sizes of stars reach up to a thousand radii of the Sun*.
*If we depict the Sun as a ball 10 cm in diameter, then the entire solar system will be a circle with a diameter of 800 m. In this case: Proxima Centauri (the closest star to the Sun) would be at a distance of 2,700 km; Sirius – 5,500 km; Altair – 9,700 km; Vega – 17,000 km; Arcturus – 23,000 km; Capella - 28,000 km; Regulus - 53,000 km; Deneb – 350,000 km.
In terms of volume (size), stars differ greatly from each other. For example, our Sun is inferior to many stars: Sirius, Procyon, Altair, Betelgeuse, Epsilon Aurigae. But the Sun is much larger than Proxima Centauri, Kroeger 60A, Lalande 21185, Ross 614B.
The largest star in our Galaxy is located in the center of the Galaxy. This red supergiant is larger in volume than the orbit of Saturn - Herschel's garnet star ( Cepheus). Its diameter is more than 1.6 billion km.
Determining the distance to a star. Distance to star measured through parallax (angle) - knowing the distance of the Earth to the Sun and the parallax, you can use the formula to determine the distance to the Star (Fig. 5.3. “Parallax”).
Parallax — the angle at which the semimajor axis of the earth's orbit is visible from the star (or half the angle of the sector at which the space object is visible).
The parallax of the Sun itself from Earth is 8.79418 seconds.
If the stars were reduced to the size of a nut, the distance between them would be measured in hundreds of kilometers, and the displacement of the stars relative to each other would be several meters per year.
Rice. 5.3. Parallax .
The determined magnitude depends on the radiation receiver (eye, photographic plate). Stellar magnitude can be divided into visual, photovisual, photographic and bolometric:
- visual - determined by direct observation and corresponds to the spectral sensitivity of the eye (maximum sensitivity occurs at a wavelength of 555 μm);
- photovisual ( or yellow) - determined when photographing with a yellow filter. It practically coincides with the visual one;
- photographic ( or blue) — determined by photographing on film sensitive to blue and ultraviolet rays, or using an antimony-cesium photomultiplier with a blue filter;
- bolometric - is determined by a bolometer (integrated radiation detector) and corresponds to the total radiation of the star.
The relationship between the brightness of two stars (E 1 and E 2) and their magnitudes (m 1 and m 2) is written in the form of the Pogson formula (5.1.):
E 2 (m 1 - m 2)
2,512 (5.1.)
For the first time, the distance to the three nearest stars was determined in 1835-1839 by the Russian astronomer V.Ya. Struve, as well as by the German astronomer F. Bessel and the English astronomer T. Henderson.
Determining the distance to a star is currently carried out using the following methods:
- radar- based on the radiation through an antenna of short pulses (for example, in the centimeter range), which, reflected from the surface of an object, return back. Using the delay time of the pulse, the distance is found;
- laser(or lidar) - also based on the radar principle (laser rangefinder), but produced in the short-wave optical range. Its accuracy is higher, but the Earth's atmosphere often interferes.
Mass of stars. It is believed that the mass of all visible stars in the Galaxy ranges from 0.1 to 150 solar masses, where the mass of the Sun is 2x10 30 kg. But these data are constantly being updated. The massive star was discovered by the Hubble Telescope in 1998 in the Southern sky in the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud (150 solar masses). In the same nebula, entire clusters of supernovae with a mass of more than 100 solar masses were discovered .
The heaviest stars are neutron stars; they are a million billion times denser than water (it is believed that this is not the limit). In the Milky Way, the heaviest star is Carinae.
It was recently discovered that van Maanen's star, which is only 12th magnitude (not larger than the globe), is 400,000 times denser than water! Theoretically, it is possible to assume the existence of much denser substances.
It is assumed that in terms of mass and density, the so-called “black holes” are the leaders.
Temperature of stars. It is assumed that the effective (internal) temperature of the star is 1.23 times the temperature of its surface .
The star's parameters change from its periphery to the center. So the temperature, pressure, and density of the star increase towards its center. Young stars have hotter coronas than older stars.
5.5. Classification of stars
Stars are classified by color, temperature, and spectral class (spectrum). And also by luminosity (E), stellar magnitude (“m” - visible and “M” - true).
Spectral class. A quick glance at the starry sky can give the wrong impression that all stars are the same color and brightness. In reality, the color, luminosity (brilliance and brightness) of each star is different. Stars, for example, have the following colors: purple, red, orange, green-yellow, green, emerald, white, blue, violet, violet.
The color of a star depends on its temperature. Based on temperature, stars are divided into spectral classes (spectra), the value of which determines the ionization of atmospheric gas:
- red - the star’s temperature is about 600° (there are about 8% of such stars in the sky);
- scarlet - 1000°;
- pink - 1500°;
- light orange - 3000°;
- straw yellow - 5000° (about 33%);
- yellowish-white* - 6000°;
- white - 12000-15000° (about 58% of them in the sky);
- bluish-white - 25000°.
*In this row is our Sun (which has a temperature of 6000° ) corresponds to the color yellow.
The hottest stars – blue, and the coldest – infrared . Most of all there are white stars in our sky. Cold are also To brown dwarfs (very small, the volume of Jupiter), but they have 10 times more mass than the Sun.
Main sequence – the main grouping of stars in the form of a diagonal stripe on the “spectral class-luminosity” or “surface temperature-luminosity” diagram (Hertzsprung-Russell diagram). This band runs from bright and hot stars to dim and cold ones. For most main sequence stars, the relationship between mass, radius and luminosity holds: M 4 ≈ R 5 ≈ L. But for low- and high-mass stars, M 3 ≈ L, and for the most massive ones, M ≈ L.
Stars are divided into 10 classes by color in descending order of temperature: O, B, A, F, D, K, M; S, N, R. “O” stars are the coldest, “M” stars are the hottest. The last three classes (S, N, R), as well as additional spectral classes C, WN, WC, belong to rare variables(flashing) stars with deviations in chemical composition. There are about 1% of such variable stars. Where O, B, A, F are early classes, and all the rest D, K, M, S, N, R are late classes. In addition to the listed 10 spectral classes, there are three more: Q - new stars; P—planetary nebulae; W are Wolf-Rayet type stars, which are divided into carbon and nitrogen sequences. In turn, each spectral class is divided into 10 subclasses from 0 to 9, where the hotter star is designated (0) and the cooler star is designated (9). For example, A0, A1, A2, ..., B9. Sometimes they give a more fractional classification (with tenths), for example: A2.6 or M3.8. The spectral classification of stars is written in the following form (5.2.):
S side row
O - B - A - F - D - K - M main sequence(5.2.)
R N side row
Early classes of spectra are designated by Latin capital letters or two-letter combinations, sometimes with numerical clarifying indices, for example: gA2 is a giant whose emission spectrum belongs to class A2.
Double stars are sometimes designated by double letters, for example, AE, FF, RN.
Main spectral types (main sequence):
“O” (blue)- have high temperature and continuous high intensity ultraviolet radiation, as a result of which the light from these stars appears blue. The most intense lines are ionized helium and multiple ionized some other elements (carbon, silicon, nitrogen, oxygen). The weakest lines are neutral helium and hydrogen;
“B” (bluish-white) - neutral helium lines reach their greatest intensity. The lines of hydrogen and the lines of some ionized elements are clearly visible;
“A” (white) - the hydrogen lines reach their highest intensity. The lines of ionized calcium are clearly visible, weak lines of other metals are observed;
“F” (slightly yellowish) - the hydrogen lines become weaker. The lines of ionized metals (especially calcium, iron, titanium) become stronger;
“D” (yellow) - hydrogen lines do not stand out among the numerous lines of metals. The lines of ionized calcium are very intense;
Table 5.2. Spectral types of some stars
| Spectral classes | Color | Class | Temperature (degree) |
Typical stars (in constellations) |
| Hottest | Blue | ABOUT | 30000 and above | Naos (ξ Korma) Meissa, Heka (λ Orion) Regor (γ Sail) Hathisa (ι Orion) |
| Very hot | bluish-white | IN | 11000-30000 | Alnilam (ε Orion) Rigel Menkhib (ζ Perseus) Spica (α Virgo) Antares (α Scorpio) Bellatrix (γ Orion) |
| White | A | 7200-11000 | Sirius (α Canis Major) Deneb Vega (α Lyra) Alderamine (α Cepheus)* Castor (α Gemini) Ras Alhag (α Ophiuchus) |
|
| Hot | yellow-white | F | 6000-7200 | Wasat (δ Gemini) Canopus Polar Procyon (α Canis Minor) Mirfak (α Perseus) |
| Yellow | D | 5200-6000 | Sun Sadalmelek (α Aquarius) Chapel (α Charioteer) Aljezhi (α Capricorn) |
|
| Orange | TO | 3500-5200 | Arcturus (α Bootes) Dubhe (α Ursa Major) Pollux (β Gemini) Aldebaran (α Taurus) |
|
| Atmospheric temperature is low | Reds | M | 2000-3500 | Betelgeuse (α Orion) Mira (O Whale) Mirach (α Andromeda) |
* Cepheus (or Kepheus).
“K” (reddish) - hydrogen lines are not noticeable among the very intense lines of metals. The violet end of the continuum is noticeably weakened, indicating a strong decrease in temperature compared to earlier classes, such as O, B, A;
“M” (red) - metal lines are weakened. The spectrum is crossed by absorption bands of titanium oxide molecules and other molecular compounds.
Additional classes (side row):
“R”— there are absorption lines of atoms and absorption bands of carbon molecules;
“S”— Instead of titanium oxide strips, zirconium oxide strips are present.
In table 5.2. “Spectral classes of some stars” presents data (color, class and temperature) of the most famous stars. Luminosity (E) characterizes the total amount of energy emitted by a star. It is assumed that the source of the star's energy is the nuclear fusion reaction. The more powerful this reaction, the greater the luminosity of the star.
Based on their luminosity, stars are divided into 7 classes:
- I (a, b) - supergiants;
- II - bright giants;
- III - giants;
- IV - subgiants;
- V - main sequence;
- VI - subdwarfs;
- VII - white dwarfs.
The hottest star is the core of planetary nebulae.
To indicate the luminosity class, in addition to the given designations, the following are also used:
- c - supergiants;
- d - giants;
- d - dwarfs;
- sd - subdwarfs;
- w - white dwarfs.
Our Sun belongs to the spectral class D2, and in terms of luminosity to group V, and the general designation of the Sun is D2V.
The brightest over new star flared up in the spring of 1006 in the southern constellation of the Wolf (according to Chinese chronicles). At its maximum brightness it was brighter than the Moon in the first quarter and was visible to the naked eye for 2 years.
Luminosity or apparent brightness (illuminance, L) is one of the main parameters of a star. In most cases, the radius of a star (R) is determined theoretically based on an estimate of its luminosity (L) over the entire optical range and temperature (T). The luminosity of a star (L) is directly proportional to the values of T and L (5.3.):
L = R ∙ T (5.3.)
—— = (√ ——) ∙ (———) (5.4.)
Rс is the radius of the Sun,
Lс is the luminosity of the Sun,
Tc is the temperature of the Sun (6000 degrees).
Stellar magnitude. Luminosity (the ratio of a star's luminous intensity to its sunlight) depends on the distance of the star to the Earth and is measured by magnitude.
Magnitude- dimensionless physical quantity, characterizing the illumination created by a celestial object near the observer. The magnitude scale is logarithmic: in it, a difference of 5 units corresponds to a 100-fold difference between the light flux from the measured and reference sources. This is the minus sign logarithm to the base 2.512 of the illumination created by a given object on an area perpendicular to the rays. It was proposed in the 19th century by the English astronomer N. Pogson. This is the optimal mathematical relationship that is still used today: stars that differ in size by one differ in brightness by a factor of 2.512. Subjectively, its value is perceived as brightness (for point sources) or brightness (for extended sources). The average brightness of stars is taken to be (+1), which corresponds to the first magnitude. A star of second magnitude (+2) is 2.512 times fainter than the first. The (-1) magnitude star is 2.512 times brighter than first magnitude. In other words, the magnitude of the source is positively numerically greater, the weaker the source*. All large stars have a negative (-) magnitude, and all small stars have a positive (+) magnitude.
Stellar magnitudes (from 1 to 6) were first introduced in the 2nd century BC. e. Ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea. He classified the brightest stars as first magnitude, and those barely visible to the naked eye as sixth. Currently, a star of initial magnitude is taken to be a star that creates an illumination on the edge of the earth's atmosphere equal to 2.54 x 10 6 lux (that is, as 1 candela from a distance of 600 meters). This star creates a flux of about 10 6 quanta per 1 sq.cm throughout the entire visible spectrum. per second (or 10 3 quanta/sq. cm. with A°)* in the region of green rays.
* A° is an angstrom (unit of measurement of an atom), equal to 1/100,000,000 of a centimeter.
Based on their luminosity, stars are divided into 2 magnitudes:
- "M" absolute (true);
- "m" relative (visible from Earth).
Absolute (true) magnitude (M) — is the magnitude of the star normalized to a distance of 10 parsecs (pc) (equal to 32.6 light years or 2,062,650 AU) to Earth. For example, the absolute (true) magnitude is: Sun +4.76; Sirius +1.3. That is, Sirius is almost 4 times brighter than the Sun.
Relative apparent magnitude (m) — This is the brightness of a star visible from Earth. It does not determine the actual characteristics of the star. The distance to the object is to blame for this. In table 5.3., 5.4. and 5.5. Some stars and objects in the earth's sky are presented by luminosity from the brightest (-) to the faintest (+).
Biggest star the famous one is R Dorado (which is located in the southern hemisphere of the sky). It is part of our neighboring star system - the Small Magellanic Cloud, the distance to which from us is 12,000 times greater than to Sirius. This is a red giant, its radius is 370 times that of the Sun (which is equal to the orbit of Mars), but in our sky this star is visible at only +8 magnitude. It has an angular diameter of 57 milliarcseconds and is located at a distance of 61 parsecs (pc) from us. If you imagine the Sun the size of a volleyball, then the star Antares will have a diameter of 60 meters, Mira Ceti - 66, Betelgeuse - about 70.
One of the smallest stars our sky - the neutron pulsar PSR 1055-52. Its diameter is only 20 km, but it shines strongly. Its apparent magnitude is +25 .
The closest star to us- this is Proxima Centauri (Centauri), 4.25 sv away. years. This +11th magnitude star is located in the southern sky of the Earth.
Table. 5.3. Magnitudes of some of the brightest stars in the earth's sky
| Constellation | Star | Magnitude | Class | Distance to the Sun (pc) | |
| m (relative) |
M (true) |
||||
| — | Sun | -26.8 | +4.79 | D2 V | — |
| Big Dog | Sirius | -1.6 | +1.3 | A1 V | 2.7 |
| Small Dog | Procyon | -1.45 | +1.41 | F5 IV-V | 3.5 |
| Keel | Canopus | -0.75 | -4.6 | F0 I in | 59 |
| Centaurus* | Toliman | -0.10 | +4.3 | D2 V | 1.34 |
| Bootes | Arcturus | -0.06 | -0.2 | K2 III r | 11.1 |
| Lyra | Vega | 0.03 | +0.6 | A0 V | 8.1 |
| Auriga | Chapel | 0.03 | -0.5 | D III8 | 13.5 |
| Orion | Rigel | 0.11 | -7.0 | B8 I a | 330 |
| Eridanus | Achernar | 0.60 | -1.7 | B5 IV-V | 42.8 |
| Orion | Betelgeuse | 0.80 | -6.0 | M2 I av | 200 |
| Eagle | Altair | 0.90 | +2.4 | A7 IV-V | 5 |
| Scorpion | Antares | 1.00 | -4.7 | M1 IV | 52.5 |
| Taurus | Aldebaran | 1.1 | -0.5 | K5 III | 21 |
| Twins | Pollux | 1.2 | +1.0 | K0 III | 10.7 |
| Virgo | Spica | 1.2 | -2.2 | B1 V | 49 |
| Swan | Deneb | 1.25 | -7.3 | A2 I in | 290 |
| Southern Fish | Fomalhaut | 1.3 | +2.10 | A3 III(V) | 165 |
| a lion | Regulus | 1.3 | -0.7 | B7 V | 25.7 |
* Centaurus (or Centaurus).
Farthest star of our Galaxy (180 light years) is located in the constellation Virgo and is projected onto the elliptical galaxy M49. Its magnitude is +19. The light from it takes 180 thousand years to reach us. .
Table 5.4. Luminosity of the brightest visible stars in our sky
| № | Star | Relative magnitude ( visible) (m) | Class | Distance to the Sun (pc)* |
Luminosity Relative to the Sun(L = 1) |
| 1 | Sirius | -1.46 | A1. 5 | 2.67 | 22 |
| 2 | Canopus | -0.75 | F0. 1 | 55.56 | 4700-6500 |
| 3 | Arcturus | -0.05 | K2. 3 | 11.11 | 102-107 |
| 4 | Vega | +0.03 | A0. 5 | 8.13 | 50-54 |
| 5 | Toliman | +0.06 | G2. 5 | 1.33 | 1.6 |
| 6 | Chapel | +0.08 | G8. 3 | 13.70 | 150 |
| 7 | Rigel | +0.13 | AT 8. 1 | 333.3 | 53700 |
| 8 | Procyon | +0.37 | F5. 4 | 3.47 | 7.8 |
| 9 | Betelgeuse | +0.42 | M2. 1 | 200.0 | 21300 |
| 10 | Achernar | +0.47 | AT 5. 4 | 30.28 | 650 |
| 11 | Hadar | +0.59 | IN 1. 2 | 62.5 | 850 |
| 12 | Altair | +0.76 | A7. 4 | 5.05 | 10.2 |
| 13 | Aldebaran | +0.86 | K5. 3 | 20.8 | 162 |
| 14 | Antares | +0.91 | M1. 1 | 52.6 | 6500 |
| 15 | Spica | +0.97 | IN 1. 5 | 47.6 | 1950 |
| 16 | Pollux | +1.14 | K0. 3 | 13.9 | 34 |
| 17 | Fomalhaut | +1.16 | A3. 3 | 6.9 | 14.8 |
| 18 | Deneb | +1.25 | A2. 1 | 250.0 | 70000 |
| 19 | Regulus | +1.35 | AT 7. 5 | 25.6 | 148 |
| 20 | Adara | +1.5 | AT 2. 2 | 100.0 | 8500 |
* pc – parsec (1 pc = 3.26 light years or 206265 AU).
Table. 5.5. Relative apparent magnitude of the brightest objects in the earth's sky
| An object | Visible stellar magnitude |
| Sun | -26.8 |
| Moon* | -12.7 |
| Venus* | -4.1 |
| Mars* | -2.8 |
| Jupiter* | -2.4 |
| Sirius | -1.58 |
| Procyon | -1.45 |
| Mercury* | -1.0 |
*Shine with reflected light.
5.6. Some types of stars
Quasars - these are the most distant cosmic bodies and the most powerful sources of visible and infrared radiation observed in the Universe. These are visible quasi-stars that have an unusual blue color and are a powerful source of radio emission. A quasar emits energy per month equal to the entire energy of the Sun. The size of the quasar reaches 200 AU. These are the most distant and fastest-moving objects in the Universe. Opened in the early 60s of the 20th century. Their true luminosity is hundreds of billions of times greater than the luminosity of the Sun. But these stars have variable brightness. The brightest quasar ZS-273 is located in the constellation Virgo, it has a magnitude of +13m.
White dwarfs - the smallest, densest, low-luminosity stars. The diameter is about 10 times smaller than the solar one.
Neutron stars - stars made primarily of neutrons. Very dense, with huge mass. They have different magnetic fields and have frequent flashes of varying power.
Magnetars– one of the types of neutron stars, stars with rapid rotation around its axis (about 10 seconds). 10% of all stars are magnetars. There are 2 types of magnetars:
v pulsars– opened in 1967. These are ultra-dense cosmic pulsating sources of radio, optical, x-ray and ultraviolet radiation that reach the Earth's surface in the form of periodically repeating bursts. The pulsating nature of the radiation is explained by the rapid rotation of the star and its strong magnetic field. All pulsars are located from Earth at a distance of 100 to 25,000 light years. years. Typically, X-ray stars are binary stars.
v IMPGV— sources with soft, repeating gamma bursts. About 12 of them have been discovered in our Galaxy; these are young objects, they are located in the Galactic plane and in the Magellanic clouds.
The author suggests that neutron stars are a pair of stars, one of which is central, and the second is its satellite. At this time, the satellite reaches the perihelion of its orbit: it is extremely close to the central star, has a high angular velocity of rotation and rotation, and therefore is maximally compressed (has super-density). There is a strong interaction between this pair, which is expressed in powerful radiation of energy from both objects*.
* A similar interaction can be observed in simple physical experiments when two charged balls come together.
5.7. Star orbits
The proper motion of stars was first discovered by the English astronomer E. Halley. He compared the data of Hipparchus (3rd century BC) with his data (1718) on the movement of three stars in the sky: Procyon, Arcturus (the constellation Bootes) and Sirius (the constellation Canis Major). The movement of our star, the Sun, in the Galaxy was proved by J. Bradley in 1742, and finally confirmed in 1837 by the Finnish scientist F. Argelander.
In the 20s of our century, G. Strömberg discovered that the velocities of stars in the Galaxy are different. The most fast star our sky is Bernard's star (flying) in the constellation Ophiuchus. Its speed is 10.31 arcseconds per year. The pulsar PSR 2224+65 in the constellation Cepheus moves in our Galaxy at a speed of 1600 km/s. Quasars move at approximately the speed of light (270,000 km/s). These are the most distant stars observed. Their radiation is very enormous, even greater than the radiation of some galaxies. Gould Belt stars have (peculiar) velocities of about 5 km/s, indicating expansion of this star system. Globular clusters (and short-period Cepheids) have the highest velocities.
In 1950, the Russian scientist P.P. Parenago (MSU SAI) conducted a study on the spatial velocities of 3000 stars. The scientist divided them into groups depending on their location on the spectrum-luminosity diagram, taking into account the presence of various subsystems considered by V. Baade and B. Kukarkin .
In 1968, the American scientist J. Bell discovered radio pulsars (pulsars). They had a very large rotation around their axis. This period is assumed to be milliseconds. In this case, the radio pulsars traveled in a narrow beam (beam). One such pulsar, for example, is located in the Crab Nebula, its period is 30 pulses per second. The frequency is very stable. Apparently this is a neutron star. The distances between stars are enormous.
Andrea Ghez from the University of California and her colleagues reported measurements of the proper motions of stars at the center of our Galaxy. It is assumed that the distance of these stars to the center is 200 AU. Observations were carried out at the telescope named after. Keck (USA, Hawaiian Islands) for 4 months since 1994. The speeds of the stars reached 1500 km/s. Two of those central stars never moved more than 0.1 pc from the galactic center. Their eccentricity is not precisely determined, with measurements ranging from 0 to 0.9. But scientists have precisely determined that the foci of the orbits of the three stars are located at one point, the coordinates of which, with an accuracy of 0.05 arcseconds (or 0.002 pc), coincide with the coordinates of the radio source Sagittarius A, traditionally identified with the center of the Galaxy (Sgr A*). It is assumed that the orbital period of one of the three stars is 15 years.
Orbits of stars in the Galaxy. The movement of stars, like planets, obeys certain laws:
- they move along an ellipse;
- their motion is subject to Kepler’s second law (“a straight line connecting a planet with the Sun (radius vector) describes equal areas (S) in equal periods of time (T).”
It follows from this that the areas in perigalactia (So) and apogalactia (Sa) and time (To and Ta) are equal, and the angular velocities (Vо and Va) at the perigalactia point (O) and at the apogalactia point (A) are sharply different, then is: with So = Sa, To = Ta; the angular velocity in the perigalactia (Vo) is greater, and the angular velocity in the apogalactia (Va) is less.
This Kepler law can be conditionally called the law of “unity of time and space.”
We also observe a similar pattern of elliptical motion of subsystems around the center of their systems when considering the movement of an electron in an atom around its nucleus in the Rutherford-Bohr atomic model.
It was previously noticed that the stars in the Galaxy move around the center of the Galaxy not in an ellipse, but in a complex curve that looks like a flower with many petals.
B. Lindblad and J. Oort proved that all the stars in globular clusters, moving at different speeds in the clusters themselves, simultaneously participate in the rotation of this cluster (as a whole) around the center of the Galaxy . Later it was found out that this was due to the fact that the stars in the cluster have a common center of revolution*.
* This note is very important.
As mentioned above, this center is the largest star of this cluster. A similar thing is observed in the constellations Centaurus, Ophiuchus, Perseus, Canis Major, Eridanus, Cygnus, Canis Minor, Cetus, Leo, Hercules.
The rotation of stars has the following features:
rotation occurs in the spiral arms of the Galaxy in one direction;
- the angular velocity of rotation decreases with distance from the center of the Galaxy. However, this decrease is somewhat slower than if the stars rotate around the center of the Galaxy according to Kepler's law;
- the linear speed of rotation first increases with distance from the center, and then at approximately the distance of the Sun it reaches its greatest value (about 250 km/s), after which it decreases very slowly;
- As they age, stars move from the inner to the outer edge of the Galaxy's arm;
- The Sun and the stars in its surroundings make a complete revolution around the center of the Galaxy, presumably in 170-270 million years (d data from different authors)(which averages about 220 million years).
Struve noticed that the colors of stars differ the more, the greater the difference in the brightness of the component stars and the greater their mutual distance. White dwarfs make up 2.3-2.5% of all stars. Single stars are only white or yellow*.
*This note is very important.
And double stars are found in all colors of the spectrum.
The stars closest to the Sun (Gould belts) (and there are more than 500 of them) predominantly have spectral types: “O” (blue); “B” (bluish-white); “A” (white).
Dual system - a system of two stars orbiting around a common center of mass . Physically double star- these are two stars visible in the sky close to each other and connected by gravity. Most stars are double. As mentioned above, the first double star was discovered in 1650 (Ricciolli). There are over 100 different types of dual systems. This is, for example, a radio pulsar + a white dwarf (neutron star or planet). Statistics say that double stars often consist of a cool red giant and a hot dwarf. The distance between them is approximately 5 AU. Both objects are immersed in a common gas shell, the material for which is released by the red giant in the form of stellar wind and as a result of pulsations .
On June 20, 1997, the Hubble Space Telescope transmitted an ultraviolet image of the atmosphere of the giant star Mira Ceti and its companion, a hot white dwarf. The distance between them is about 0.6 arcseconds and it is decreasing. The image of these two stars looks like a comma, the “tail” of which is directed towards the second star. It appears that Mira's material is flowing towards her satellite. At the same time, the shape of the atmosphere of Mira Ceti is closer to an ellipse than to a sphere. Astronomers knew about the variability of this star 400 years ago. Astronomers realized that its variability is associated with the presence of a certain satellite near it only a few decades ago.
5.8. Star formation
There are many options regarding star formation. Here is one of them - the most common.
The picture shows the galaxy NGC 3079 (Photo 5.5.). It is located in the constellation Ursa Major at a distance of 50 million light years.
Photo. 5.5. Galaxy NGC 3079
At the center there is a burst of star formation so powerful that winds from the hot giants and shock waves from supernovae have merged into a single bubble of gas that rises 3,500 light-years above the galactic plane. The expansion speed of the bubble is about 1800 km/s. It is believed that the burst of star formation and bubble growth began about a million years ago. Subsequently, the brightest stars will burn out, and the bubble’s energy source will be exhausted. However, radio observations show traces of an older (about 10 million years old) and more extensive emission of the same nature. This indicates that bursts of star formation in the core of NGC 3079 may be periodic.
Photo 5.6. "Nebula X in the galaxy NGC 6822" is a shining nebula (region) of star formation (Hubble X) in one of the nearby galaxies (NGC 6822).
Its distance is 1.63 million light years (slightly closer than the Andromeda nebula). The bright central nebula is about 110 light years across and contains thousands of young stars, the brightest of which are visible as white dots. Hubble X is many times larger and brighter than the Orion Nebula (the latter is comparable in scale to the small cloud below Hubble X).
Photo. 5.6. Nebula X in the galaxyNGC 6822
Objects like Hubble X form from giant molecular clouds of cold gas and dust. It is believed that intense star formation in Xubble X began about 4 million years ago. Star formation in clouds accelerates until it is abruptly stopped by the radiation of the brightest stars born. This radiation heats and ionizes the medium, transferring it to a state where it can no longer compress under the influence of its own gravity.
In the chapter “New Planets of the Solar System” the author will give his version of the birth of stars.
5.9. Star energy
The energy source of stars is assumed to be nuclear fusion reaction. The more powerful this reaction, the greater the luminosity of the stars.
A magnetic field. All stars have a magnetic field. Stars with a red spectrum have a lower magnetic field than blue and white stars. Of all the stars in the sky, about 12% are magnetic white dwarfs. Sirius, for example, is a bright white magnetic dwarf. The temperature of such stars is 7-10 thousand degrees. There are fewer hot white dwarfs than cold ones. Scientists have found that as the age of a star increases, both its mass and magnetic field increase. (S.N.Fabrika, G.G.Valyavin, SAO) . For example, magnetic fields on magnetic white dwarfs begin to grow rapidly with increasing temperature from 13000 and above.
Stars emit very high energy (10 15 Gauss) magnetic field.
Source of energy. The source of energy for X-ray (and all) stars is rotation (a rotating magnet emits radiation). White dwarfs rotate slowly.
The magnetic field of a star increases in two cases:
- when a star contracts;
- as the star's rotation accelerates.
As mentioned above, the ways of spinning up and compressing a star can be moments when stars come together when one of them passes the perihelion of its orbit (double stars), when matter flows from one star to another. Gravity holds the star back from exploding.
Starbursts or stellar activity (SA). Starbursts (soft, repeating gamma-ray bursts) of stars were discovered recently - in 1979.
Weak bursts last about 1 second, and their power is about 10 45 erg/s. Faint bursts of stars last a fraction of a second. Superflares last for weeks, and the star's luminosity increases by about 10%. If such an outbreak occurs on the Sun, then the dose of radiation that the Earth will receive will be fatal to all the vegetation and animal life of our planet.
New stars flare up every year. During flares, a lot of neutrinos are released. The Mexican astronomer G. Haro first began to study flaring stars (“explosions of stars”). He discovered quite a few such objects, for example, in the association of Orion, Pleiades, Cygnus, Gemini, Manger, Hydra. This was also observed in the M51 (“Whirlpool”) galaxy in 1994, and in the Large Magellanic Cloud in 1987. In the mid-19th century, an explosion occurred at η Kiel. He left a trail in the form of a nebula. In 1997 there was a surge of activity at Mira Whale. The maximum was on February 15 (from +3.4 to +2.4 mag. mag.). The star burned red-orange for a month.
A flaring star (a small red dwarf with a mass 10 times less than the Sun) was observed at the Crimean Astronomical Observatory in 1994-1997 (R.E. Gershberg). Over 25 recent years In our Galaxy, 4 extra flares were recorded. For example, a very powerful star flare near the center of the Galaxy in the constellation Sagittarius occurred on December 27, 2004. It lasted 0.2 seconds. and its energy was 10 46 erg (for comparison: the energy of the Sun is 10 33 erg).
In three photographs (photo 5.7. “XZ Taurus binary system”), taken in different time Hubble (1995, 1998 and 2000), the explosion of a star was filmed for the first time. The images show the movement of clouds of glowing gas ejected by the young binary XZ Tauri system. In fact, this is the base of a jet (“jet”), a phenomenon typical of newborn stars. The gas is ejected from an invisible magnetized disk of gas orbiting one or both stars. The ejection speed is about 150 km/s. It is believed that the ejection has existed for about 30 years, its size is about 600 astronomical units (96 billion kilometers).
The images show dramatic changes between 1995 and 1998. In 1995, the edge of the cloud had the same brightness as the middle. In 1998 the edge suddenly became brighter. This increase in brightness, paradoxically, is associated with the cooling of the hot gas at the edge: cooling enhances the recombination of electrons and atoms, and light is emitted during recombination. Those. When heated, energy is expended to strip electrons from atoms, and when cooled, this energy is released in the form of light. This is the first time astronomers have seen such an effect.
Another photo shows another burst of stars. (Photo 5.8. “Double star He2-90”).
The object is located 8,000 light years away in the constellation Centaurus. According to scientists, He2-90 is a pair of old stars masquerading as one young one. One of them is a swollen red giant, losing material from its outer layers. This material gathers into an accretion disk around a compact companion, which is likely a white dwarf. These stars are not visible in the images due to the dust lane covering them.
Photo. 5.7. Dual XZ Taurus system.
The top image shows narrow, lumpy jets (the diagonal rays are an optical effect). The jet speed is about 300 km/s. The clumps are emitted at approximately 100-year intervals and may be associated with some kind of quasi-periodic instability in the accretion disk. The jets of very young stars behave in the same way. The moderate speed of the jets suggests that the companion is a white dwarf. But gamma rays detected from the region of He2-90 indicate that it may be a neutron star or black hole. But the gamma-ray source could just be a coincidence. The bottom image shows a dark dust lane cutting through the diffuse glow from the object. This is an edge-on dust disk - it is not an accretion disk, since it is several orders of magnitude larger in size. Lumps of gas are visible in the lower left and upper right corners. They are believed to have been thrown away 30 years ago.
Photo. 5.8. Double star He2-90
According to G. Haro, a flare is a short-term event in which the star does not die, but continues to exist*.
*This note is very important.
All stellar flares have 2 stages (it has been noted that this is especially true for faint stars):
- a few minutes before the flare there is a decrease in activity and luminosity (the author suggests that at this time the star is undergoing extreme compression);
- then the flash itself follows (the author assumes that at this time the star interacts with the central star around which it rotates).
The brightness of a star during a flare increases very quickly (in 10-30 seconds), and decreases slowly (in 0.5-1 hour). And although the star’s radiation energy is only 1-2% of the total star’s radiation energy, traces of the explosion are visible far in the Galaxy.
In the depths of stars, two mechanisms of energy transfer are always at work: absorption and emission. . This suggests that the star lives a full life, where there is an exchange of matter and energy with other space objects.
In rapidly rotating stars, spots appear near the pole of the star, and its activity occurs precisely at the poles. The activity of the poles in optical pulsars was discovered by Russian SOA scientists (G.M. Beskin, V.N. Komarova, V.V. Neustroev, V.L. Plokhotnichenko). Cool, solitary red dwarfs have spots that appear closer to the equator. .
In this regard, it can be assumed that the cooler the star, the closer its stellar activity (SA) appears to the equator*.
*The same thing happens on the Sun. It has been noted that the higher the solar activity (SA), the sunspots at the beginning of the cycle appear closer to its poles; then the spots begin to gradually slide towards the equator of the Sun, where they disappear completely. When SA is minimal, sunspots appear closer to the equator (Chapter 7).
Observations of flaring stars have shown that during a flare on a star, a luminous gaseous geometrically smooth ring is formed along the periphery of its “aura”. Its diameter is tens or more times larger than the star itself. The matter ejected from the star is not carried outside the “aura”. It makes the border of this zone glow. This was observed in images from Hubble (from 1997 to 2000) by scientists at the Harvard Astrophysical Center (USA) during the explosion of supernova SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The shock wave traveled at a speed of approximately 4500 km/s. and, having stumbled upon this border, was detained and shone like a small star. The glow of the gas ring, heated to temperatures of tens of millions of degrees, lasted for several years. Also, the wave at the boundary collided with dense clumps (planets or stars), causing them to glow in the optical range . In the field of this ring, 5 bright spots stood out, scattered around the ring. These spots were much smaller than the glow of the central star. The evolution of this star has been observed since 1987 by many telescopes around the world (see Chapter 3.3. photo “Supernova Explosion in the Large Magellanic Cloud of 1987”).
The author suggests that the ring around a star is the boundary of the sphere of influence of this star. It is a kind of “aura” of this star. A similar boundary is observed in all galaxies. This sphere is also similar to the Hill sphere near the Earth*.
*The “aura” of the Solar System is 600 AU. (American data).
The luminous spots on the ring can be stars or star clusters belonging to a given star. The glow is their response to the explosion of the star.
The fact that stars and galaxies change their state before collapse was well confirmed by the observations of American astronomers of the galaxy GRB 980326. Thus, in March 1998, the brightness of this galaxy first decreased by 4m after an outburst, and then stabilized. In December 1998 (9 months later), the galaxy completely disappeared, and in its place something else shone (like a “black hole”).
Scientist astronomer M. Giampapa (USA), having studied 106 sun-like stars in the M67 cluster of the constellation Cancer, whose age coincides with the age of the Sun, found that 42% of the stars are active. This activity is either higher or lower than the activity of the Sun. Approximately 12% of stars have an extremely low level of magnetic activity (similar to the Maunder Minimum of the Sun - see below in Chapter 7.5). The other 30% of stars, on the contrary, are in a state of very high activity. If we compare these data with the SA parameters, it turns out that our Sun is now most likely in a state of moderate activity* .
*This remark is very important for further discussions.
Stellar activity cycles (ZA) . Some stars have a certain cyclicity in their activity. Thus, Crimean scientists discovered that one hundred stars observed for 30 years have a periodicity in their activity (R.E. Gershberg, 1994-1997). Of these, 30 stars belonged to the “K” group, which had periods of about 11 years. Over the past 20 years, a cycle of 7.1-7.5 years has been identified for a single red dwarf (with a mass of 0.3 solar masses). Star activity cycles were also identified in 8.3; 50; 100; 150 and 294 days. For example, a flare near a star in Nova Cassiopeia (in April 1996), according to the electronic network for observing variable stars VSNET, had a maximum brightness (+8.1 m) and flared with a clear periodicity - once every 2 months. One star in the constellation Cygnus had activity cycles of 5.6 days; 8.3 days; 50 days; 100 days; 150 days; 294 days. But the cycle of 50 days was most clearly manifested (E.A. Karitskaya, INASAN).
Research by the Russian scientist V.A. Kotov showed that 50% of all stars oscillate in solar phase, and 50% of the remaining other stars oscillate in antiphase. This oscillation of all stars itself is equal to 160 minutes. That is, the pulsation of the Universe, the scientist concludes, is equal to 160 minutes.
Hypotheses about stellar explosions. There are several hypotheses regarding the causes of stellar explosions. Here are some of them:
- G. Seeliger (Germany): a star, moving along its path, flies into a gas nebula and heats up. The nebula pierced by the star also warms up. This is the total radiation of the star and nebula heated by friction that we see;
- N. Lockyer (England): the stars do not play any role. Explosions are formed as a result of the collision of two meteor showers flying towards each other;
- S. Arrhenius (Sweden): a collision of two stars occurs. Before meeting, both stars cooled down and went out, and therefore are not visible. The energy of movement turned into heat - an explosion;
- A. Belopolsky (Russia): two stars are moving towards each other (one of large mass with a dense hydrogen atmosphere, the second is hot with a lower mass). The hot star goes around the cold one in a parabola, warming up its atmosphere with its movement. After this, the stars diverge again, but now both are moving in the same direction. The shine decreases, the “new” one goes out;
- G. Gamov (Russia), V. Grotrian (Germany): the flare is caused by thermonuclear processes occurring in the central part of the star;
- I. Kopylov, E. Mustel (Russia): this is a young star, which then calms down and becomes an ordinary star located on the so-called main sequence;
- E. Milne (England): the internal forces of the star itself cause an explosion, its outer shell is torn off from the star and carried away at high speed. And the star itself shrinks, turning into a white dwarf. This happens to any star at the “sunset” of stellar evolution. A nova flash indicates the death of a star. This is natural;
- N. Kozyrev, V. Ambartsumyan (Russia): the explosion does not occur in the central part of the star, but on the periphery, shallow below the surface. Explosions play very well important role in the evolution of the Galaxy;
- B. Vorontsov-Velyaminov (Russia): a nova is an intermediate stage in stellar evolution, when a hot blue giant, shedding excess mass, turns into a blue or white dwarf.
- E. Schatzman (France), E. Kopal (Czechoslovakia): all emerging (new) stars are binary systems.
- W. Klinkerfuss (Germany): two stars rotate around each other in very elongated orbits. At a minimum distance (periastron), powerful tides, eruptions, and eruptions occur. A new one breaks out.
- W. Heggins (England): close passage of stars from each other. False tides, outbreaks, and eruptions occur. These are what we observe;
- G. Haro (Mexico): a flare is a short-term event in which a star does not die, but continues to exist.
- It is believed that during the evolution of stars, its stable equilibrium may be disrupted. While the interior of the star is rich in hydrogen, its energy is released due to nuclear reactions converting hydrogen into helium. As hydrogen burns out, the star's core contracts. A new cycle of nuclear reactions begins in its depths - the synthesis of carbon nuclei from helium nuclei. The core of the star heats up and it is time for thermonuclear fusion of heavier elements. This chain of thermonuclear reactions ends with the formation of iron nuclei, which accumulate in the center of the star. Further compression of the star will increase the core temperature to billions of Kelvin. At the same time, the decay of iron nuclei into helium nuclei, protons, and neutrons begins. More than 50% of the energy is used for illumination and emission of neutrinos. All this requires enormous energy expenditure, during which the interior of the star is greatly cooled. The star begins to collapse catastrophically. Its volume decreases and compression stops.
During the explosion, a powerful shock wave is formed, which throws off its outer shell (5-10% of the matter)* from the star.
“Black cycle of stars (L. Konstantinovskaya). According to the author, the last four versions (E. Schatzman, E. Kopal, V. Klinkerfuss, W. Heggins, G. Aro) are closest to the truth.
Struve noticed that the colors of stars differ the more, the greater the difference in the brightness of the component stars and the greater their mutual distance. Single stars are only white or yellow. Double stars occur in all colors of the spectrum. White dwarfs make up 2.3-2.5% of all stars.
As mentioned above, the color of a star depends on its temperature. Why does the color of a star change? It can be assumed, that:
- when the “satellite star” moves away from its central star in a globular cluster (in apogalactic orbit), the “satellite star” expands, slows down its rotation, brightens (“whitens”), dissipates energy and cools down;
- When approaching the central star (perigalactic orbit), the satellite star contracts, accelerates its rotation, darkens (“blackens”) and, concentrating its energy, heats up.
The color change of the star should occur according to the law of spectral decomposition of white color:
- the star expands from dark burgundy to red, then orange, yellow, green-white and white;
- The compression of the star occurs from white to blue, then to blue, dark blue, violet and “black”.
If we take into account the laws of dialectics that any star evolves “from a simple state to a complex one,” then there is no death of a star, but there is a constant transition from one state to another through pulsation (explosions).
Scientists have discovered that during the collapse of a star (flare), its chemical composition also changed: the atmosphere was greatly enriched with oxygen, magnesium, and silicon, which synthesized the flare in a high-temperature thermonuclear explosion. Following this, heavy elements were born (G. Israelyan, Spain) .
It can be assumed that when a star pulsates (expansion-compression), the “black” color of the star corresponds to the moment of maximum compression before the explosion. This should occur in binary systems when the star approaches the central star (perigalactic orbit). It is at this time that the interaction of the central star with the satellite star occurs, which generates an “explosion” of the satellite star and the pulsation of the central star. At this time, the star transitions to another, more distant orbit (to another more complex state). Such stars are most likely located in the so-called “black holes” of the Cosmos. It is in these zones that one should expect the phenomenon of a flaring star. These zones are critical (“black”) active points of the Cosmos.
« Black holes" - (according to modern concepts) is the name given to small but heavy stars (with a large mass). It is believed that they collect matter from the surrounding space. The black hole emits X-rays, so it is observable modern means. It is also believed that a disk of trapped matter is formed near the black hole. A black hole appears when the star inside it explodes. In this case, a burst of gamma radiation occurs for several seconds. It is assumed that the surface layers of the star explode and fly apart, while inside the star everything contracts. Holes are usually found in pairs with a star. Photo 5.9. “Star Explosion on February 24, 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud” shows the star a month before the explosion (photo A) and during the explosion (photo B).
Photo. 5.9. Star explosion on February 24, 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud
(A - star a month before the explosion; B - during the explosion)
In this case, the first one shows the convergence of three stars (shown by an arrow). It is not known exactly which one exploded. The distance of this star to us is 150 thousand light years. years. Within a few hours of the star's activity, its luminosity increased by 2 magnitudes and continued to grow. By March it reached fourth magnitude and then began to weaken. A similar supernova explosion that could be observed with the naked eye has not been observed since 1604.
In 1899, R. Thorburn Innes (1861-1933, England) published the first extensive catalog of double stars in the southern sky. It included 2140 pairs of stars, and the components of 450 of them were separated by an angular distance of less than 1 arcsecond. It was Thorburn who discovered the closest star to us, Proxima Centauri.
5.10. Catalog of 88 sky constellations and their brightest stars.
| № | Constellation name | * | S²grad² | Number of stars | Designation | The brightest stars in this constellation | ||
| Russian | Latin | |||||||
| 1 | Andromeda | Andromeda | And | 0 | 720 | 100 | ab | Mirach Alferaz (Sirrah) Alamak (Almak) |
| 2 | Twins | Gemini | Gem | 105 | 514 | 70 | ab | CastorPollux Teyat, Prior (Propus, Prop) Teyat Posterior (Dirah) |
| 3 | Big Dipper | Ursa Major | GMa | 160 | 1280 | 125 | ab | DubheMerak Megrets (Kaffa) Alkaid (Benetnash) Alula Australis Alula Borealis Tania Australis Tania Borealis |
| 4 | Big | Canis Major | CMa | 105 | 380 | 80 | ad | Sirius (Vacation)Wesen Mirzam (Murzim) |
| 5 | Scales | Libra | Lib | 220 | 538 | 50 | ab | Zuben Elgenubi (Kiffa Australis)Zuben Elshemali (Kiffa Borealis) Zuben Hakrabi Zuben Elakrab Zuben Elakribi |
| 6 | Aquarius | Aquarius | Aqr | 330 | 980 | 90 | ab | SadalmelekSadalsuud (Elzud Garden) Skat (Sheat) Sadakhbiya |
| 7 | Auriga | Auriga | Aur | 70 | 657 | 90 | ab | CapellaMencalinan Hassaleh |
| 8 | Wolf | Lupus | Lup | 230 | 334 | 70 | ||
| 9 | Bootes | Boots | Boo | 210 | 907 | 90 | ab | ArcturusMeres (Neckar) Mirak (Isar, Pulcherima) Mufrid (Mifrid) Seguin (Haris) Alcalurops Princeps |
| 10 | Veronica's hair | Coma Berenices | Com | 190 | 386 | 50 | a | Diadem |
| 11 | Crow | Corvus | Crv | 190 | 184 | 15 | ab | Alhita (Alhiba) Kraz Algorab |
| 12 | Hercules | Hercules | Her | 250 | 1225 | 140 | ab | Ras AlgetiKorneforos (Rutilic) Marsik (Marfak) |
| 13 | Hydra | Hydra | Hya | 160 | 1300 | 130 | a | Alphard (Heart of Hydra) |
| 14 | Pigeon | Columba | Col | 90 | 270 | 40 | ab | FaktVazn |
| 15 | Hound Dogs | Canes Venatici | CVn | 185 | 465 | 30 | ab | Heart of KarlHara |
| 16 | Virgo | Virgo | Vir | 190 | 1290 | 95 | ab | Spica (Dana) Zavijava (Zavijava) Windemiatrix Khambalia |
| 17 | Dolphin | Delphinus | Del | 305 | 189 | 30 | ab | SualokinRotanev Jeneb El Delphini |
| 18 | The Dragon | Draco | Dra | 220 | 1083 | 80 | ab | TubanRastaban (Alvaid) Etamin, Eltanin Nodus 1 (Nod) |
| 19 | Unicorn | Monoceros | Mon | 110 | 482 | 85 | ||
| 20 | Altar | Ara | Ara | 250 | 237 | 30 | ||
| 21 | Painter | Pictor | Pic | 90 | 247 | 30 | ||
| 22 | Giraffe | Camelopardalis | Cam | 70 | 757 | 50 | ||
| 23 | Crane | Grus | Gru | 330 | 366 | 30 | a | Alnair |
| 24 | Hare | Lepus | Lep | 90 | 290 | 40 | ab | ArnebNihal |
| 25 | Ophiuchus | Ophiuchus | Oph | 250 | 948 | 100 | ab | Ras AlhagTzelbalrai Sabik (Alsabik) Yed Prior Yed Posterior Sinistra |
| 26 | Snake | Serpens | Ser | 230 | 637 | 60 | a | Unuk Alhaya (Elhaya, Heart of the Serpent) |
| 27 | Golden Fish | Dorado | Dor | 85 | 179 | 20 | ||
| 28 | Indian | Indus | Ind | 310 | 294 | 20 | ||
| 29 | Cassiopeia | Cassiopeja | Cas | 15 | 598 | 90 | a | Shedar (Shedir) |
| 30 | Centaur (Centaurus) | Centaurus | Cen | 200 | 1060 | 150 | a | Toliman (Rigil Centaurus) Hadar (Agena) |
| 31 | Keel | Carina | Car | 105 | 494 | 110 | a | Canopus (Suhel) Miaplacid |
| 32 | Whale | Cetus | Set | 20 | 1230 | 100 | a | Menkar (Menkab) Difda (Deneb, Kantos) Deneb Algenubi Kaffaljidhma Baten Kaitos |
| 33 | Capricorn | Capricornus | Cap | 315 | 414 | 50 | a | Aljedi Sheddy (Deneb Aljedi) |
| 34 | Compass | Pyxis | Pyx | 125 | 221 | 25 | ||
| 35 | Stern | Puppis | Pup | 110 | 673 | 140 | z | Naos Asmidiske |
| 36 | Swan | Cygnus | Cyg | 310 | 804 | 150 | a | Deneb (Aridif) Albireo Azelphaga |
| 37 | a lion | Leo | Leo | 150 | 947 | 70 | a | Regulus (Kalb) Denebola Aljeba (Algeiba) Adhafera Algenubi |
| 38 | Flying fish | Volans | Vol | 105 | 141 | 20 | ||
| 39 | Lyra | Lyra | Lyr | 280 | 286 | 45 | a | Vega |
| 40 | Chanterelle | Vulpecula | Vul | 290 | 268 | 45 | ||
| 41 | Ursa Minor | Ursa Minor | UMi | 256 | 20 | a | Polar (Kinosura) | |
| 42 | Small Horse | Equuleus | Equ | 320 | 72 | 10 | a | Kitalfa |
| 43 | Small | Leo Minor | LMi | 150 | 232 | 20 | ||
| 44 | Small | Canis Minor | CMi | 110 | 183 | 20 | a | Procyon (Elgomaise) |
| 45 | Microscope | Microscopium | Mic | 320 | 210 | 20 | ||
| 46 | Fly | Musca | Mus | 210 | 138 | 30 | ||
| 47 | Pump | Antlia | Ant | 155 | 239 | 20 | ||
| 48 | Square | Norma | Nor | 250 | 165 | 20 | ||
| 49 | Aries | Aries | Ani | 30 | 441 | 50 | a | Gamal (Hamal) Mesartim |
| 50 | Octant | Octans | Oct | 330 | 291 | 35 | ||
| 51 | Eagle | Aquila | Aql | 290 | 652 | 70 | a | Altair Deneb Okab Deneb Okab (Cepheid) |
| 52 | Orion | Orion | Ori | 80 | 594 | 120 | a | Betelgeuse Rigel (Algebar) Bellatrix (Alnajid) Alnilam Alnitak Meissa (Heka, Alheka) |
| 53 | Peacock | Pavo | Pav | 280 | 378 | 45 | a | Peacock |
| 54 | Sail | Vela | Vel | 140 | 500 | 110 | g | Regor Alsuhail |
| 55 | Pegasus | Pegasus | Peg | 340 | 1121 | 100 | a | Markab (Mekrab) Algenib Salma (Kerb) |
| 56 | Perseus | Perseus | Per | 45 | 615 | 90 | a | Algenib (Mirfak) Algol (Gorgon) Kapul (Misam) |
| 57 | Bake | Forrnax | For | 50 | 398 | 35 | ||
| 58 | Bird of paradise | Apus | Aps | 250 | 206 | 20 | ||
| 59 | Cancer | Cancer | Cne | 125 | 506 | 60 | a | Akubens (Sertan) Azellus Australis Azellus borealis Presepa (Nursery) |
| 60 | Cutter | Caelum | Cae | 80 | 125 | 10 | ||
| 61 | Fish | Pisces | Psc | 15 | 889 | 75 | a | Alrisha (Okda, Kaitain, Resha) |
| 62 | Lynx | Lynx | Lyn | 120 | 545 | 60 | ||
| 63 | Northern Crown | Corona Borealis | CrB | 230 | 179 | 20 | a | Alpheka (Gemma, Gnosia) |
| 64 | Sextant | Sextans | Sex | 160 | 314 | 25 | ||
| 65 | Net | Reticulum | Ret | 80 | 114 | 15 | ||
| 66 | Scorpion | Scorpius | Sco | 240 | 497 | 100 | a | Antares (Heart of Scorpio) Akrab (Elyakrab) Lesath (Lezakh, Lezat) Graffias Alakrab Graffias |
| 67 | Sculptor | Sculptor | Scl | 365 | 475 | 30 | ||
| 68 | Table Mountain | Mensa | Men | 85 | 153 | 15 | ||
| 69 | Arrow | Sagitta | Sge | 290 | 80 | 20 | a | Sham |
| 70 | Sagittarius | Sagittarius | Sgr | 285 | 867 | 115 | a | Alrami Arkab Prior Arkab Posterior Cowes Australis Cowes Medius Cowes Borealis Albaldach Altalimain Manubrius Terebell |
| 71 | Telescope | Telescopium | Tel | 275 | 252 | 30 | ||
| 72 | Taurus | Taurus | Tau | 60 | 797 | 125 | a | Aldebaran (Palilia) Alcyone Asterope |
| 73 | Triangle | Triangulum | Tri | 30 | 132 | 15 | a | Metallah |
| 74 | Toucan | Tucana | Tuc | 355 | 295 | 25 | ||
| 75 | Phoenix | Phoenix | Phe | 15 | 469 | 40 | ||
| 76 | Chameleon | Chamaeleon | Cha | 130 | 132 | 20 | ||
| 77 | Cepheus (Kepheus) | Cepheus | Cep | 330 | 588 | 60 | a | Alderamin Alrai (Errai) |
| 78 | Compass | Circinus | Cir | 225 | 93 | 20 | ||
| 79 | Watch | Horologium | Hor | 45 | 249 | 20 | ||
| 80 | Bowl | Crater | Crt | 170 | 282 | 20 | a | Alkes |
| 81 | Shield | Scutum | Sct | 275 | 109 | 20 | ||
| 82 | Eridanus | Eridanus | Eri | 60 | 1138 | 100 | a | Achernar |
| 83 | South Hydra | Hydrus | Hyi | 65 | 243 | 20 | ||
| 84 | Southern Crown | Corona Australis | CrA | 285 | 128 | 25 | ||
| 85 | Southern Fish | Piscis Austrinus | PsA | 330 | 245 | 25 | a | Fomalhaut |
| 86 | South Cross | Crux | Cru | 205 | 68 | 30 | a | Acrux Mimosa (Becrux) |
| 87 | Southern Triangle | Triangulum Australe | TrA | 240 | 110 | 20 | a | Atria (Metallah) |
| 88 | Lizard | Lacerta | Lac | 335 | 201 | 35 | ||
Notes: Zodiac constellations are highlighted in bold.
* Approximate heliocentric longitude of the constellation center.
It is very logical to assume that the color of stars in a globular cluster also depends on their position in orbit around their central star. It was noticed (see above) that all bright stars are solitary, that is, they are far from each other. And the darker ones, as a rule, are double or triple, that is, they are close to each other.
It can be assumed that the color of the stars changes in a “rainbow”. The next cycle ends in the perigalaxy - maximum compression of the star and black color. There is a “leap from quantity to quality.” Then the cycle repeats. But during pulsation, a condition is always met - the next compression does not occur in the initial (small) state, but in the process of development, the volume and mass of the star constantly increase by a certain amount. Its pressure and temperature also change (increase).
Conclusions. Analyzing all of the above, we can say that:
explosions on stars: regular, ordered both in space and time. This is a new stage in the evolution of stars;
explosions in the galaxy to expect:
- in the “black holes” of the Galaxy;
- in groups of double (triple, etc.) stars, that is, when stars approach each other.
- the spectrum of an exploding star (one or more) should be dark (from dark blue-violet to black).
5.11. Star-Earth connections
A hundred years ago, solar-terrestrial connections (STE) were recognized. The time has come to pay attention to star-terrestrial connections (STE). Thus, the 1998 flare of a star on August 27 (which is located at a distance of several thousand parsecs from the Sun) had an impact on the Earth’s magnetosphere.
Metals react especially to stellar flares. For example, the spectra of neutral helium (helium-2) and metals responded to the flare of a single red dwarf star (with a mass less than that of the Sun) after 15-30 minutes (R.E. Gershberg, 1997, Crimea).
18 hours before the optical detection of a supernova explosion in February 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud, neutrino detectors on Earth (in Italy, Russia, Japan, USA) noted several bursts of neutrino radiation with an energy of 20-30 megaelectronvolts. Radiation in the ultraviolet and radio ranges was also noted.
Calculations show that the energy of stellar flares (explosions) is such that a star flare such as the Foramen star at a distance of 100 light years. years from the Sun will destroy life on Earth.
