Adverbs in Polish. Polish adverbs (polskie przysłówki): word formation and forms of degrees of comparison. We bought the red dress more expensive than the green one

Essence of the question

In this material we will talk about why for a Russian-speaking person there is so much confusion in this, by and large, not the most difficult topic of Polish grammar. Mastering the corresponding endings, as a rule, is not difficult, and even the alternations that occur in abundance on this part of the path are solvable. The biggest difficulties you and I have are when using comparative degree adjectives and adverbs - we begin to confuse them. Why? Everything is very simple: in Russian they often coincide. For example:

Red dress expensive than green.

We bought a red dress expensive than green.

Please note that in the first version the word “more expensive” answers the question “which one?” and in Polish it will sound “droższe” (from the adjective drogi), and in the second - to the question “how?” - "drożej" (from the adverb drogo). As we see in Russian, they are one word, so in Polish we often confuse them, which is absolutely not allowed.

Solution

The easiest way to solve a problem is to train yourself to ask the question: “which one?” or how?". However, there may be difficulties here too. To avoid them, let’s go back to Russian language lessons in the fifth grade of high school and remember that:

Adjective is a part of speech that means attribute of an object.

Adverb– part of speech indicating sign of action.

Translated into normal language, this means that the adjective always refers to a noun (or pronoun), in our case to a dress. We are talking about which dress is more expensive. And an adverb always refers to a verb, in our case bought as - more expensive.

Since the Russian language often does not give us the opportunity to distinguish between Polish adjectives and adverbs in comparative or superlatives, you and I just need to understand what word it refers to. And if it refers to a noun, then we can safely put the suffix “ -szy", and if to a verb, then " -ej».

No, really. You can do without particles if you want to look like a cardboard robot. It is the particles that add color to speech, emphasize the emotional component of the phrase and even add meaning.

Since particles are an indeclinable part of speech, your task today is quite simple - familiarize yourself with and learn the most popular particles of the Polish language. There is no need to deflect or conjugate anything today.

Particles in Polish

We can move on to specific ones by understanding a little about what these particles are. In examples of particles, I will give everything that I managed to find on the topic. The worst thing here was that every other textbook had a different explanation, different names for groups of particles. Not a part of speech, but some kind of ghost. I tried to adhere to the Polish classification, if anything, the portal Aleklasa.pl partially helped me with this.

Another interesting and funny fact about particles. Particle in Polish it is partykuła. And so I decided to write an article about partykułach języka polskiego, and decided to ask my Polish friends why there is so little information on the Internet on this topic, and in textbooks too. To which my Polish friends stared at me with the words: “Co to jest partykuła?” And these are not the worst and most uneducated friends, I tell you.

Classification of particles (partykuł) in Polish

Because particles add extra meaning to what we say, Polish language they are divided into:

• interrogative particles (pytające): for example, czy, czyż, czyżby. There is still a particle -li(we always write it together with the previous word), which is now considered outdated, the modern analogue is czy.
  • Czy Ania wróciła? - Is Anya back?
  • Znasz li ten kraj?=Czy znasz ten kraj? - You know whether are you this country?
  • Czyżby do you remember? — Really did he forget me?
  • Czyż nie mówiłam, że tak będzie?! — Isn't it I didn't say this would happen?
• affirmative particles (twierdzące): common Polish so, wszak, owszem, zaiste, and colloquial no, ano, ale, juści (the latter are so that they are no longer used anywhere, it was difficult for me to find examples)
  • Czy mowisz po angielsku? — Tak, troche. — Do you speak English? — Yes, A little.
  • I jak, oblałaś ten egzamin? – no. Poprawka we wrześniu. — So, did you fail this exam? — Well. It can be fixed in September.
  • Jest to wszak duża suma pieniędzy. — This after all A huge amount of money.
• negative particles (przeczące): nie, ani, wcale, ni-.
  • To nie jest problem. — This Not problem.
  • Nie mam ani Grosza. — I have no neither penny.
  • Situacja wcale się nie poprawiła. — Situation at all hasn't improved.
• conditional particles (przypuszczające): bym, byś, by, byście, byśmy, by(i.e. particles conditional mood(tryb przypuszczający)):
  • On by to zrobil dobrze. — He would it did well.
  • Zrobil byś tutaj porządek! — Navel would you're fine here!
• doubt(wątpiące): bodaj, chyba, może, pewnie
  • Pewnie, martwimy się o nich. — Certainly, we worry about them.
  • Chyba lepsze to niż nic. — Maybe, it's better than nothing.
  • Może mógłbyś wysłać mi maila. — Maybe you could email me.
• incentive particles (rozkazujące): bodaj, niech, niechaj, oby, żeby
  • Niech ona w końcu to skończy! — Let she will finish it eventually!
  • Oby twoje słowa stały się prawdą. — I wish I could your words turned out to be true.
  • Oby się tak stało! — I wish I could it was!
• amplifiers particles (wzmacniające): -ć, ci, cić, ino, no, ino ta, tam, też, toć, —że, -ż, to, przecież, ależ.
  • A to ci dopiero historia! — Here is the story!
  • Chodź no! Ja tam nie pójdę. — Go! I won't go there.
  • Daj że mi spokój! — leave same leave me alone!
  • Chodź że! — Let's go same!
  • - Pani pozwoli? – Ależ oczywiście. — Will you allow it? — Well Certainly!
  • amplifying particles can double: Jak żeż mama mowić? — How should I speak?
• excretory and about restrictive particles (ograniczające): tylko, jedynie, choć, chociaz, nawet.
  • Posadź tam chociaż dwa krzaki. — Plant it there at least two bushes.
  • Mam tylko pięć złotych. — I have only five zlotys.
  • Mogę jedynie porozmawiać z twoimi rodzicami. — I can the only thing talk to your parents.
• uncertain particles (nieokreślone): bądź, byle, lada, -kolwiek, -ś , usually paired with indefinite pronouns: for example, kto bądź, byle gdzie, lada kto, czyjkolwiek, jakiś:
  • Nie rzucaj rolek byle gdzie. — Don't quit rollers anywhere.
  • Ten dzieciak mógł być czyjkolwiek. — This kid could be anyone.
  • Zaczęliśmy się spotykać jakiś miesiac temu. — We started dating some a month ago.

Spelling of particles (partykuł) in Polish

• We write verbs with particles together -że , -li .
  • Idź że w końcu do domu. — Finally go home.
  • Zrob że sobie chwilę przerwy. — Give yourself a minute's break.
  • Miej że chociaż trochę rozsądku. — Have at least a little common sense.
  • Znasz li tę krainę? — Do you know this region?
• Particles are written separately from the verb no, czy, niechaj, niech, bodaj, oby.
  • Podejdź n o tutaj! — Come here!
  • Niechaj mnie dzisiaj nikt o nic nie prosi! — Let no one ask me for anything today = ask me for nothing!
  • Niech nikt się nie skarży! — Let no one complain!
  • O byś się nie zająknęła podczas jutrzejszej recytacji. — I wish you didn't start stuttering during tomorrow's performance.

Eternal problems with "nie"

We write the particle "nie" c together:

• participles from adjectives, for example:
  • nieznający - unknowing;
  • nierosnący - non-increasing;
  • nieodgadniony - incomprehensible;
  • nieugięty - unbending, unyielding;

• nouns, for example:
  • nieporządek - disorder;
  • nieśmiałość - timidity (timidity);
  • nieostrożność - carelessness;
  • nieobecność - absence;

• adjectives equally, for example:
  • niegrzeczny - impolite;
  • nieduży - small;
  • niegłupi - not stupid;

• adverbs from adjectives equally, for example:
  • nielekko - not easy;
  • nieładnie - ugly;
  • niedobrze - not good.

Separately we write the particle “nie” with:

• numerals, for example:
  • nie dwa - not two;
  • nie piętnasty - not the fifteenth;
  • (exceptions: niejeden - not one (meaning 'many');

• pronouns, for example:
  • nie ja - not me;
  • nie wy - not you;
  • nie tamten- not the one;
  • (exceptions: niejako - somehow, nieco - slightly, nieswój - not your own = not in yourself;) ;

• verbs in personal form, for example:
  • nie pójdę - I won't go;

• infinitives = impersonal verbs, for example:
  • nie robić - not to do;
  • nie śpiewać - do not sing;

• impersonal verb forms that end in -no,-to, For example:
  • nie umyto - not washed;
  • nie zrobiono - not done;

• participles from adverbs (imiesłowami przysłówkowymi), for example:
  • nie robiąc - not doing;
  • nie rozumiejąc - not understanding;
  • nie przeczytawszy - not having read;
  • nie zrozumiawszy - not understanding;

• adjectives in the highest and highest degree, for example:
  • nie większy - not bigger;
  • nie głupszy - no more stupid;
  • nie największy - not the biggest;
  • nie najgłupszy is not the dumbest;

• adverbs from adjectives in the degree of the highest and highest, for example:
  • nie lepiej - no better;
  • nie gorzej - no worse;
  • nie najlepiej - not the best.

But of course there are exceptions:

We write “nie” separately with a noun, an adjective and a participle of an adjective when there is opposition in the sentence (everything is like in Russian):

• To nie przyjaciel, ale wróg. - This is not a friend, but an enemy.
• Mieliśmy nie łatwy, ale trudny egzamin. — We had not an easy, but a difficult exam.
• Talerz był nie umyty, ale brudny. — The plate was not clean, but dirty.

And other exceptions like:

• niewiele - a little, niejaki - some, niektórzy - some, niekiedy - once, niezbyt - not too much;
• verbs: niedowidzieć - to undersee (‘to see badly’), niedomagać – to feel unwell (‘to be sick’), niedosłyszeć – to underhear (‘to hear badly’), nienawidzić – to hate.

Spelling with particle "by"

Write " by" (and its Polish derivatives: bym, byś, byśmy, byście) merge with:

• personal forms of verbs in the subjunctive mood, for example:
  • zrobiłbym - I would do it;
  • poszłaby - she would go;
• with unions gdy, że, a, for example:
  • gdyby - if only;
  • żeby - to;
  • aby - to;
• with a comparative expression, for example:
  • jakby - as if;
  • niby - like.

We write separately by" With:

• impersonal forms, for example:
  • zrobiono by - would be done;
  • uszyto by - would be sewn;
• modal expression that acts as a verb, for example:
  • można by - it would be possible;
  • warto by - it would be worth it;
  • trzeba by - it would be necessary.

After all this, I would like to leave a few more examples here, but after thinking about it, I’ll leave that for the next article. 🙂 And in general, if this material seemed like heavenly punishment to you, seriously, wait for the next article, there I will, without any negative, affirmative and vague concepts, simply give a list of the most necessary ones in Polish speech particles. Everything I like. 🙂 Although I also love this article, there are many, many examples and in general everything is clear. 🙂

P.S. I must have made a couple of mistakes in this. volumetric material(of course, I hope not), so if you find something like this, I would be grateful if you leave a comment on this matter.

If the material was interesting and useful, I will be glad to support! I'm putting together a good camera so I can start making quality training videos for you. 🙂

adverb (przysłó wek) – an unchangeable part of speech (with the exception of qualitative adverbs), which answers the questions: how? how? Where? When? These words denote a sign of action, state or quality. Let's see how they are formed.

In a sentence, adverbs usually appear next to a verb, adjective or other adverb and perform the function of an adverbial or predicative (these are so-called words of the state category, which denote the state of the subject and often act as a predicate; for example: jest mi vaguely i zimno– I’m sad and cold). In accordance with their syntactic function, adverbs also include pronominal adverbs ( tutaj, dlaczego, wszę dzie, nigdy and others).

Polish adverbs formed from adjectives

Adverbs in the Polish language are most often formed from adjectives using suffixes (Poles often call them endings) -e, -o . However, there are no fixed rules for the use of these formants.

More often — o occurs in adverbs formed from adjectives with a base on a soft or hardened (functionally soft) consonant. For example: gorzki – Gorzko, duż y – duż o, tani – Tanio, gł upi – gł upio). And for a letter — e adverbs that were formed from adjectives with a hard base end, while the base softens, and alternations of sounds often occur. For example: ciekawy – ciekawie, good – dobrze. But this is not a strict or regular rule.

Therefore, it’s easier not to look for some kind of logic, but to memorize Polish adverbs with exactly the suffixes with which Poles usually use them. But keep in mind: some words may have two correct forms(with both suffixes).

As you can see, the total of forms with final -O more. However, keep in mind: not all dictionaries offer the same forms as the only correct ones; democratic publications allow the formation of both forms from many adjectives, especially in colloquial speech. So don’t be afraid to make a mistake – a Pole will certainly understand you.

You can also form from some adjectives complex adverbs by other means:

• pretext po and suffix -u (rosyjski - po rosyjsku);
• pretext po and suffix -emu (nowy – po nowemu);
• pretext z and suffix -a (daleki – z daleka);
• pretext na and suffix -o (lewy – na lewo);
• pretext za and suffix — o (szybki – za szybko) - here is a suggestion za has the meaning of 'too much'.

Polish dialects formed from numerals

To construct these forms, the preposition is used po and suffix — e: pierwszy – po pierwsze(Firstly), drugi – po drugie(Secondly), trzeci – po trzecie(Thirdly), czwarty – po czwarte(fourth) and so on.

Adverbs formed from nouns

Simple adverbs represent forms of nouns in oblique cases without a preposition ( razem, czasem, rankiem). A complex– nouns in various indirect cases with prepositions: wó wczas(Then), naprzó d(forward), po trochę (by a little), powoli(slowly), na czas(temporarily).

Moreover, there are no firm rules for the combined and separate writing of such forms. They just need to be remembered. Sometimes there are two options: wprzó d And w przó d(earlier).

Degrees of comparison of adverbs (stopniowanie przysłowków)

Adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison: comparative (stopień wyższy) and superlative (stopień najwyższy).

Simple Comparative Forms formed with the help suffix — ej , which is attached to the stem of an adverb without final — o or — e. For example: boring – nudniej, pię knie – pię kniej.

If the basis of the adverb has a suffix - k, — ek or - ok, then it disappears. For example: ciężko - ciężej, wysoko - wyżej, krótko - krócej, prędko - prędzej, lekko - lżej, blisko - bliżej, szeroko - szerzej. Also, note: the suffix -ej softens the base, so after some hard consonants you just need to add a letter - i-, and in other cases occur alternation: b//b', p//p', w//w', n//n', ł//l, s//ż, g//ż, ch//sz, r//rz, st//ść, t//ć, d//dz.

Superlatives are formed from forms of comparative degree with help consoles naj -. For example: wyż ej – naj wyż ej, proś ciej – naj proś ciej, cieplej – naj cieplej.

There are also forms of degrees of comparison formed from another base. These words in many languages ​​are exceptions to the general rule. You just need to remember them.

• dobrze(Fine) - lepiej(better) - najlepiej(the best);
• źle(Badly) - gorzej(worse) - najgorzej(worst of all);
• mał o(few) - mniej(less) - najmniej(least of all);
• duż o(a lot of) - wię cej(more) - najwię cej(most).

In addition, it is possible to form complex forms of degrees of comparison in a descriptive way (stopniowanie opisowe). In this case, before the adverb, you need to put a function word bardziej (more) / mniej(less) - for the comparative degree and najbardziej (most of all) / najmniej (least of all) - for excellent. For example: Gorzko – bardziej Gorzko – najbardziej Gorzko.

This rule most often works for polysyllabic adverbs, since adding prefixes and suffixes makes these words difficult to pronounce.

In colloquial speech, forms of degrees of comparison from some adverbs can be formed using either of these two methods. For example: zł osliwie – zł oś liwiej/ bardziej zł oś live – najzł oś liwiej/ najbardziej zł oś live. However, in such cases, the first method is preferable and more correct - simple forms of degrees of comparison.

Adverb ranks by meaning

Traditionally, Polish grammar still divides adverbs into groups in depending on the value: time, place, mode and frequency.

Adverbs of time (przysłówki czasu)

These words do not change, many of them do not form degrees of comparison. Such expressions are often used in speech, so you need to know how they are translated.

Wczoraj(yesterday), dzisiaj = dziś (Today), dziś early(this morning), jutro(Tomorrow), teraz, zaraz(now, currently) nastę pnie(then), póź niej(Later), potem(Then), już (already, right now), niedawn(recently), ubiegł ej nocy(last night), w przyszł ym tygodniu(next week), w zeszł ym roku(last year), ostatnio(V Lately), obecnie(currently), wkró tce(soon), natychmiast(immediately, right there) jeszcze(more), topic(ago).

Adverbs of place (przysłówki miejsca)

Tutaj = tu(here, here) tam(there), wszę dzie(everywhere), gdziekolwiek(anywhere) nigdzie(nowhere, nowhere) w domu(Houses), stą d(from here), stamtą d(from there), ską d(where), na zewną trz(from the outside).

Adverbs of manner and manner of action (przysłówki sposobu)

Boso(barefoot), pieszo(on foot), cał kiem(quite) faktycznie(actually), ewentualnie(Maybe), ewidentnie(obviously), szybko(fast), dobrze(Fine), powoli(slowly), ledwo(barely) głó wnie(mainly), prawie(almost), absolute(absolutely), razem(together), sam(by oneself).

P. S. Antonova

MSU, Moscow

A SPECIAL GROUP OF ADVERBS OF STATE IN THE RUSSIAN AND POLISH LANGUAGES1

1. Introduction

In the languages ​​of the world, there are three constructions that can be used to convey the state of a participant in a situation. This is an attributive construction (cheerful boy, will not be considered further), an adverbial construction (1) and a secondary predication construction (2):

(1) Ale Gigi smutnopotrzqsnqígíowq i rzek (...)

"But Jigi shook his head sadly and said (...)"

(2) Przez caíy dzien Pawka chodzil smutny z powodu karabinu. "Almost the whole day Pavka walked sad because of the rifle."

The adverb in (1) and the secondary predicate in (2) characterize the emotional state of the participant.

The adverbial construction with an adverb of state (NS) and the construction of secondary predication (VP) are not completely identical: they have a number of features that ensure their distribution.

2. Features of NS and VP

2.1. Semantics

Only for the NS is the so-called lower interpretation available, in which the participant may not experience a certain state, but outwardly show its signs:

1 Examples (1)-(3) and (19) are taken from ParaSol Parallel Corpus (http://parasolcorpus.org/); example (4) - from the National Corpus of the Russian Language (http://www.ruscorpora.ru/); other Polish examples are from native speakers.

(3) (...) staraí siq JupowiedzieC wesoto...

"(...) he tried to say it cheerfully

Only for VP is a circonstant interpretation possible, in which not only the state of the participant is characterized, but also an additional adverbial relationship between the main and secondary predicate is conveyed:

(4) The stretcher seemed empty and made of cast iron. [Vasily Grossman. Everything flows (1955-1963) // October, No. 6, 1989]

(5) Sweet this tea is tasteless.

In (4) VP conveys a concessive attitude; in (5) - conditional. Such an interpretation is not typical for the Polish VPs.

2.2. Syntax

There are restrictions on the syntactic position that NS and VP controllers (i.e., participants whose state is characterized by NS and VP) can take. The NS controller should be the highest priority in the hierarchy of semantic roles. In (6) the NS can only refer to the indirect object, since it has a higher priority semantic role than the subject (subject of perception vs. object of perception):

(6) Pietiai yuL/zostaí radosnie*i, ]przez nas¡ rpulshpu. "Petya! was joyfully*!, j was met by us^.

VPs can refer to some continuous section in the hierarchy of accessibility of syntactic groups [Keenan, Comrie 1982]. Russian instrumental VPs can be classified as subject and direct object; Russian and Polish VPs that agree in case with the controller - also to indirect and indirect objects.

In the Russian language, there is evidence that a higher syntactic position is available for VPs with a circonstant interpretation than for NSs. This is evidenced by the fact that only VPs, but not NSs, may not be deleted in a yes/no ellipse (for the properties of this ellipse, see):

(7) “Vasya will run around the stage, but Petya will not even be drunk.

(8) * Vasya answered where he was, but Petya sadly / tiredly not.

A special group of state adverbs in Russian and Polish 2.3. Communication statuses

NS with a top interpretation (in which they describe the state of the participant, and not the external manifestations of this state), as a rule, report a characteristic that is not the rheme of the sentence.

VP is characterized by the communicative status of a narrow rheme, although other communicative statuses are possible. VP cannot be used in undivided sentences. Example (9) and its Russian translation cannot serve as an answer to the question What happened?:

(9) ???Do pokoju wszedl m^zczyzna wesoly. Expect: "A cheerful man entered the room."

3. A special group of state adverbs

Russian and Polish have several adverbs of condition that behave like secondary predicates. These include Russian adverbs in -om (barefoot, naked, naked) and Polish adverbs nago, boso, trzezwo, miodo, staro.

3.1. Semantics

For all the adverbs listed above, a sirconstant interpretation is possible:

(10) We are warm and I don’t even freeze barefoot. [Internet]

(11) Nawet (na) trzezwo mogi za duzo powiedziec. "Even sober, he could talk."

(12) Mlodo on mieszkai w Paryzu. "When he was young, he lived in Paris."

3.2. Syntax

Almost all adverbs of this group select a controller according to the same rules as the VP. Russian adverbs in -om can refer to subjects and direct objects, like instrumental VPs (13), (14); Polish dialects have the same set of controllers as the matching EPs (13), (15):

(13) Cz^sto widziano te dziecii bosoi. "These children were often seen barefoot^.

(14) Shei liked to look at him naked*

(15) LubilapatrzeC pa niegOj nagoij.

"She! loved to look at him] naked^naked/.

The adverbs mlodo and staro retain the set of controllers characteristic of NS. So, they cannot refer to a direct object:

(16) Spotkal mniej mlodo*¡.

"He! met me] young^".

Russian adverbs in -th may not be removed with yes/no-ellipsis:

(17) And here’s the paradox - in the house of Che’s parents (...) I was freezing like a chicken, but in the Golden Temple, even barefoot, I wasn’t. [Internet]

There are other syntactic properties that distinguish this group of adverbs from other NSs and bring them closer to VPs.

For Russian adverbs in -ом and Polish adverbs boso, nago, trzezwo, as well as for adjectives, predicative use is possible. Predicative use is not possible for mlodo and staro.

The considered NSs can be used in nominalized predications. In the Russian language, the use of other NSs in nominalizations is prohibited. In Polish nominalizations, some adverbs are marginally resolved.

3.3. Communication statuses

Like VP, NS of this group cannot be used in undivided sentences. (18) cannot answer the question What happened?:

(18) ???Do ro^i wszedl m^zczyzna boso.

Expect: "A barefoot man entered the room."

This group of adverbs is characterized by the same communicative statuses as for the VP. For example, in (19) the adverb has the communicative status of a narrow rheme:

(19) Miaía (...) czame oczy i tej samej lagl>y stopy, lo prawie zawsze chodziía boso.

"She had (...) black eyes and the same color of her feet, because she almost always went barefoot."

A special group of state adverbs in Russian and Polish

So, among the adverbs of the state that characterize the state of the participant, a special group of adverbs was identified, which in their properties are more like the VP than other NS. These adverbs can have an interpretation close to the SR constant interpretation. Most of them may refer to the same participants as the VP. They have communicative statuses characteristic of VP. Finally, Russian adverbs with a circus constant interpretation may not be removed with a yes/nega ellipsis.

What syntactic analysis is optimal for the adverbs under consideration? Do we want to argue that these adverbs, like VP, introduce a predicative group with zero subject (see the analysis of secondary predication in )? In our opinion, there is no need for such complication.

The syntactic behavior of Russian adverbs in -th reflects some past state of the language. From an etymological point of view, these adverbs are forms of the instrumental case of nouns [Vinogradov 1972: 276].

The behavior of Polish adverbs is a confirmation of the idea of ​​the closeness of the meanings expressed by the adverbial construction and the construction of secondary predication, which was expressed in. In the minds of native speakers, these constructions are so close that there was a transfer of the meaning usually expressed by one construction to another. This hyphenation is irregular: boso seems to be more similar to the prototypical VP than mlodo, so the former has the same set of controllers as the VP, while the latter retains a narrower "adverbial" set of controllers.

Thus, in the case of a special group of NNs, we are dealing with clearly marginal linguistic phenomena, which, according to some scientists (see, for example, ), should not necessarily be supported by the syntactic mechanisms existing in the language.

Why exactly these adverbs turned out to be the closest to VP? Note that of the adverbs we have considered, only the adverb ^erm>o is characterized by a lower interpretation. For the adverbs boso, nago and Russian adverbs in -om, the lower interpretation is impossible: you cannot outwardly show the lack of clothes or shoes, not

being naked or barefoot. For mlodo, staro, the lower interpretation is possible, but, according to speakers, it is uncharacteristic:

(20) Mlodo podskoczyl

"He jumped up young."

Apparently, the absence of a lower interpretation makes these adverbs more similar to VPs.

Literature

Vinogradov 1972 - V. V. Vinogradov. Russian language. Grammar

doctrine of the word. M.: Higher School, 1972. Keenan, Comrie 1982 - E. L. Keenan, B. Comrie. Hierarchy of accessibility of noun phrases and universal grammar // New in foreign linguistics. Vol. XI. M.: Progress, 1982. P. 111-165. Bailyn 2001 - J. Bailyn. The Syntax of Slavic Predicate Case // ZAS Papers

in Linguistics 22, 2001. P. 1-23. Himmelmann, Schultze-Berndt 2004 - N. Himmelmann, E. F. Schultze-Berndt. Depictive secondary predicates in crosslinguistic perspective // ​​Linguistic Typology 8, 2004. P. 59-131. Kazenin 2000 - K. I. Kazenin. Polarity in Russian and the Typology of Predicate Ellipsis. Manuscript, 2000. (http://lingexp.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb441/b2/papers/ruspol.pdf) Madariaga 2008 - N. Madariaga. Grammar change and the development of new case relations. PhD Thesis. University of the Basque Country, 2008. Nichols 1981 - J. Nichols. Predicate Nominals: A Partial Surface Syntax of Russian. Berkley: University of California Press, 1981.

Polish adverbs represent a rather heterogeneous class of unchangeable words in terms of semantics and word formation. In modern Polish, productive models of adverb formation are associated only with the stems of adjectives. Unlike the Russian language, Polish uses much more widely to form adverbs and stems. relative adjectives (planowy - planowo 'according to plan, according to plan', handlowy - handlowo 'in commercial terms').

In accordance with semantic features, several categories of adverbs are distinguished: qualitative adverbs of manner(szczerze 'sincerely', pr ę dko 'fast ', z lekka 'slightly'), adverbs of mode of action(dodatkowo 'additionally', na czczo 'on an empty stomach'), adverbs of time(dzi ś 'Today ', za m ł odu ’from a young age’, etc.), adverbs of place (daleko 'far ', wewn ą trz ’inside’, etc.).

It is possible to identify groups of adverbs or individual adverbs with meanings that are not characteristic of the Russian language within the framework of semantic categories common to the Russian language. A more representative group of qualitative adverbs is that, syntactically related to the verb, they define not an action, but an object indirectly associated with it ( wygl ą da ć m ł odo . "Look young" Ten capelusz wygl ą da ca ł kiem nowo . “This hat looks just like new.”, C ó rka chowa ł a si ę zdrowo "My daughter grew up healthy." etc.).Widely represented in this group are adverbs formed from adjectives denoting color ( Czerwono kwitn ą ce kaktusy . "Cacti blooming with red flowers.", Ubra ć si ę bia ł o "Dress in white." etc.), as well as adverbs formed according to the model na+ - o(na sucho 'dry', na gor ą co 'hot', podawa ć potraw ę na gor ą co 'serve the dish hot', etc.). A group of adverbs with a comparative connotation is distinguished, characterizing the action and its subject by comparison: adverbs with a suffix -O (bohatersko 'heroically', ojcowsko 'fatherly', etc.), prefix - suffix adverbs of models po+ - u, z+ - a(po angelski 'in English', z Niemiecka 'in German, in the German manner', etc.).

The category of adverbs of manner of action is represented in the Polish language by a wider range of semantic groups about individual lexemes. These are adverbs that denote a method of action by indicating an instrument, means or method of performing it ( zawiadomi ć listownie 'to communicate in writing, by letter', podmiot wyra ż ony zaimkowo 'subject expressed by a pronoun', etc.).

In the Polish language (in book and journalistic styles) adverbs expressing relationships are common ( przysłówki względu ).Their function is to limit the scope, limits of distribution and manifestation of a given characteristic, to indicate in relation to what and in relation to what the action is performed ( V ogaty surowcowo 'rich in raw materials', gorszy gatunkowo ‘worse, worse in quality’, etc.).

Adverbs in Polish are used in sentences as attributive and predicative functions. In the defining function (as adverbs of various semantic types), adverbs are used with verbs, adjectives, nouns ( jecha ć szybko 'go fast', rdzennie Polish 'originally Polish', jajko na mi ę kko 'soft-boiled egg', advertising na sportowo 'advertising in sports style', etc.).

In the predicative function, the adverb appears in one-part impersonal clauses as with a verbal connective or a pronominal connective to , and without them, both with the indicator of the subject of the state in D.p., and without regard to the subject ( Deszcz znowu padał. Było zimno i empty. « It started raining again. It was cold and empty." To bardzo ł adnie s twojej strony . “That’s very nice of you.”). It is possible to use a predicate adverb with a subject noun ( ó sma godzina to nie jest wcze ś nie . "Eight o'clock is not early."

Degrees of comparison of adverbs(Stopniowanie )

The forms of degrees of comparison (comparative and superlative) of qualitative adverbs can be simple (morphological) and complex (descriptive), but never coincide with the forms of comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives.

simple shapescomparative degree are formed

Adverb stem + suffix-ej (Tanio 'cheap' - taniej , ł atwo 'easy, easy' - ł atwiej ).

simple formsuperlatives formed

Prefixnaj - + adverb stem + suffix -ej (najtaniej , naj ł atwiej ).

If there are suffixes in the basis of the adverb - k , - ek , - ok suffix - ej is attached directly to the root ( ciężko 'hard' - ciężej,najciężej,daleko 'far ' -dalej,najdalej, głęboko 'deep' - głębiej,najglębiej ).

If the stem (or root) ends in a hard consonant, then before the suffix -ej there is an alternation of a consonant with its morphonological soft correspondence ( prędko 'fast' - prędzej, najprędzej, bardzo 'Very ' - bardziej, najbardziej, krotko 'short' - krocej, najkrocej and so on.). Some alternations are irregular.

There are suppletive forms of comparative and superlative adverbs ( dobrze 'Fine ' - lepej , najlepej , du ż o 'a lot of ' - wi ę cej , najwi ę cej and so on.).

Descriptive Formsdegrees of comparison consist of :

V ardzej + positive adverb form

najbardzej + positiveformadverbs

(szczegołowo 'details' - bardzo szczegółowo, najbardziej szczegółowo ).

To denote a decrease in the intensity of an action sign, the words are used mniej 'less' and najmniej 'least' ( mniej szczeg ół owo 'less detailed').

Degrees of comparison in the Polish language show different degrees of intensity of manifestation of a sign of an action or another sign, can determine a verb and an adjective and act as adverbials of a manner of action or as part of a predicate ( Wszystko Wiedzia ł najlepiej . "He knew everything better than anyone."

In Polish, comparison with other objects (producers of an action, bearer of a characteristic, circumstances, etc.) is expressed by constructions od + R.p. or low + Them. P., the difference itself is expressed by the construction o + V.p.(M ó wi g ł o ś niej od niego / g ł o ś niej ni ż on . "He (she) speaks louder than him / louder than him.", Mieszka o pi ę tro ni ż ej . “He/she lives on the floor below.”, Przyjdę nie wcześniej niż we wtorek. “I won’t come before Tuesday / no earlier than Tuesday").

Adverb coraz together with the comparative form of another adverb conveys the meaning of the strengthening of the feature ( Ola patrza ł a coraz cz ęś ciej na zegarek . “Olya looked at her watch more and more often.”).

In combination with a pronominal adverb jak or with a pronoun co degrees of comparison adverbs denote the modal conditioning of the limiting attribute ( Co przedzej . "As fast as possible.", Jak najlepiej . "As best you can.").