Read the journal Herald of Ancient History online. Bulletin of Ancient History (18 issues). Force majeure circumstances

I will provide scans of any article for digitization.

Publications
Mukherjee B.N.(Delhi) - New epigraphic finds in India Inscriptions kharosti And kharosti-brahmi from West Bengal: a new direction in the study of written kharosti. page 73
Inscription from the 170th year of the Kanishka era. page 84
About one inscription from Mathura and its significance for the problem of the Yavanas and Shaka-Pahlavas. page 87
Dated image of Maitreya. page 91
Nikitin A.B.(St. Petersburg) - Middle Persian ostraca from the Buddhist sanctuary in Old Merv. page 95

Discussions and discussions
Ukolova V. I.(Moscow) - “The Last Romans” and the paradigms of medieval culture. page 104

Reports and messages
Harutyunyan R. S.(Yerevan) - Some features of Hittite home holidays. page 119
Peiros I.I., Shnirelman V.A.(Moscow) - In search of the ancestral home of the Dravidians (Linguoarchaeological analysis). page 135
Chechentsev V.N.(Moscow) - Grape and olive harvest in ancient Attica (VI-IV centuries BC). page 148
Manaseryan R.L.(Yerevan) - International relationships in the Near East in the 80-70s BC. (Tigran II and troops from the banks of the Araks). page 152
Baglay V.E.(Eagle) - On the legal basis of ancient Aztec society. page 160

Lordkipanidze O.D.(Tbilisi) - Vani ancient settlement in the general Colkhian context. page 184
Discussion about the ancient Vani. page 209

From the history of science
Marcone A.(Florence) - St. Petersburg - Rome - Berlin: meeting M.I. Rostovtsev with German classical studies. page 213

Criticism and bibliography
Dandamaev M.A.(St. Petersburg) - Igrar Aliyev. Essay on the history of Atropatena. Baku, 1989. p. 225
Medvedskaya I.N.(St. Petersburg) - S. Zawadski. The Fall of Assyria and Median-Babylonian Relations in Light of the Nabopolassar Chronicle. Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. Seria Historia. No. 149. Poznan, 1988. p. 226
Saprykin S.Yu.(Moscow) - E. Olshausen, J. Biller. Historisch-geographiche Aspekte der Geshichte des Pontischen und Armenischen Reiches. Teil I: Untersuchungen zur historischen Geographie von Pontos unter den Mithradatiden. Wiesbaden, 1984. p. 232

In museum collections around the world
Nemirovsky A.I.(Moscow) - Archaeological Museums of Tuscany. p. 237 (In Reconstruction of the New Herodotus site).

Scientific life
Saprykin S.Yu.(Moscow), Raev B.A.(Novocherkassk) - Ancient civilization and the barbaric world. III archaeological seminar (Gelendzhik, April 8-12, 1991). page 245
In memory of V.I. Isaeva. page 250

Application
Heraclitus. About the incredible. Translation from Ancient Greek, introductory article and comments V.N. Yarho(Moscow). page 235
V.N. Yarho(Moscow). page 252

Publications
Traister M.Yu.(Moscow) - Bronze figurine of Jupiter Capitoline from Myskhako. Page 41

Discussions and discussions
Sventsitskaya I.S.(Moscow) - Features of the religious life of the masses in the Asian provinces of the Roman Empire (II-III centuries): paganism and Christianity. page 54

Reports and messages
Sizov S.K.(Nizhny Novgorod) - About the reasons for the flourishing of federal states in Hellenistic Greece. page 72
Bruyako I.V., Karpov V.A.(Odessa) - Ancient geography and sea level fluctuations (Based on the example of the northwestern part of the Black Sea basin in ancient times). page 87
Monakhov S.Yu., Slonov V.N.(Saratov) - Towards the reconstruction of the ancient methodology for calculating and modeling ancient Greek amphorae. page 97
Shopina N.R.(Moscow) - Papyrus evidence of teaching a non-native language in Greco-Roman Egypt. page 110

Personalia
Pavlovskaya A.I.(Moscow) - Konstantin Konstantinovich Zelin (1892-1983) (To the 100th anniversary of his birth). page 220
In memory of A.I. Boltunova (1990-1991). page 231

Ancient civilizations: new discoveries
Coulson W.D. AND.(Athens) - About the activities of the American School of Classical Studies in Greece. page 125
Dumas K.(Athens) - Bronze Age Cycladic civilization in the Aegean. p. 143 (in the Cyclades project of the New Herodotus portal).
Hadjidaki E.(Kalia, Crete) - Cretan Hellenistic piracy. page 154
Belyaeva E.V., Lyubin V.P.(St. Petersburg), Gade Yode F.(Abidjan) - About the initial settlement of West Africa. page 162

From the history of science
Hainen X.(Trier) - Hellenistic Egypt in the works of M.I. Rostovtseva. page 163

Criticism and bibliography
Panchenko D. V.(St. Petersburg) - V. A. Gugorov. Ancient social utopia: questions of history and theory. L., 1989. p. 180
Greenbaum N.S.(St. Petersburg) - Mycenological research (1978-1988). page 182
Molchanov A.A.(Moscow) - J. Chadwick. Linear IN and Related Scripts. Berkeley - Los Angeles, 1987. page 190
Levinskaya I.A.(St. Petersburg) - J. Reynolds, R. Tannenbaum. Jews and Godfearers at Aphrodisias. Greek Inscriptions with Commentary. Cambridge, 1987. p. 196
Koshelenko G.L., Sarianidi D.Ya.(Moscow) - Δ. Κ. Βελισσαρόπουλος . Έλληνες και "Ινδοί. Ήσυνάντησηδύο κόσμων. T. 1-2. Άθηνα, “Έστιας”, 1990. p. 201
Yarkho V.N.. (Moscow) - New volumes of papyri from Oxyrhynchus (The Oxyrhynchus papyri. V. 56. London, 1989; V. 57. London, 1990). page 205

In museum collections around the world
Kakovkin A.Ya.(St. Petersburg) - The world's largest collections of Coptic monuments. page 211

Scientific life
Kakovkin A.Ya.(St. Petersburg) - International conference of coptologists in Perigueux. page 233
Cojocaru V. M.(Reni) - International scientific conference "Tomis - Constanta: 2500 years of continuous development, culture and civilization." page 234
Karpyuk S.G.(Moscow) - III International Conference “Space and Philosophy” (Mytilene, September 20-24, 1991). page 235

Application
Parthenius. About love passions. Translation from Ancient Greek, introductory article and comments V.N. Yarho(Moscow). page 236

In museum collections around the world
Farkas E.(New York) - Art of nomads in US museums. page 195

Scientific life
Zuev V.Yu.(St. Petersburg) - Meeting in memory of Academician B.B. Piotrovsky in the Hermitage. page 205
VII Sergeev readings at the Department of History of the Ancient World, Faculty of History, Moscow State University. page 208
Kolesnikov M.A.(Athens) - II International Conference on Greek Architectural Terracotta of Classical and Hellenistic Times (Athens, December 12-13, 1991). page 216
Klochkov I.S.(Moscow) - Conference “Eastern Culture: Problems and Monuments” (St. Petersburg, January 21-25, 1992). page 219

Application
Kolosovskaya Yu.K.(Moscow) - Hagiographic works as a historical source. page 222
The Martyrdom of the Four Crowned Saints, written by Porphyry; Martyrdom of Saint Quirinus, Bishop of Siskia in Pannonia; Martyrdom of Saint Florian. Translation from Latin and commentary Yu.K. Kolosovskaya(Moscow). page 229

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Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Publishing House "Nauka" represented by Acting Director Dmitry Pavlovich Korotkov, acting on the basis of the Charter, hereinafter referred to as "Publishing house", on the one hand, and the Internet user, hereinafter referred to as "User", on the other hand, collectively referred to as the “Parties”, have entered into this agreement (hereinafter referred to as the “Agreement”)

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In this case, the User is provided with the following rights to use the Works:

provide remote access to the Works on the Internet through the Publishing House Website, which means the ability to search, view, download and read the Works.
quote in the original and in translation for scientific, research, polemical, critical and informational purposes excerpts from the Works to the extent justified by the purpose of quoting,
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transfer or distribute downloaded Works to third parties, either in whole or in part, except for the cases provided for in clause 3.2.4. Agreement;
communicate publicly the Works, both in whole and in part, through well-known broadcast channels, such as radio, television, etc., except for the cases provided for in clause 3.2.4. Agreement;
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use other software for automatic search and downloading, except those implemented on the Publishing House website

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"Publishing house": Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Publishing House "Nauka"

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1. General Provisions

1.1. This User Agreement (hereinafter referred to as the Agreement) applies to the website of the Electronic Library System - www. (hereinafter referred to as “Electronic Library System”).

1.2. Website of the Electronic Library System www. (hereinafter referred to as the Site) is the property of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise “Academic Scientific Publishing, Production, Printing and Book Distribution Center “Nauka” (FSUE “Publishing House “Nauka”).

1.3. This Agreement governs the relationship between the Administration of the “Electronic Library System” website www. (hereinafter referred to as the Site Administration) and the User (Users) of this Site.

1.4. This agreement, in accordance with Article 435 and paragraph 2 of Article 437 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, is a public offer to an unlimited number of persons, Internet users.

1.5. In accordance with Article 438 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, full and unconditional acceptance (acceptance) of the Agreement is:

confirmation by the User of his consent to the terms of the Agreement;
making an advance payment;
commencement of use of any Work;
beginning to use any services of the Site under the terms of the Agreement.

1.6. The site administration reserves the right to change, add or delete clauses of this Agreement at any time without notifying the User.

1.7. Continued use of the Site by the User means acceptance of the Agreement and the changes made to this Agreement.

1.8. The User is personally responsible for checking this Agreement for changes to it.

2. Terms used in the Agreement

2.1. User – an Internet user, any individual or legal entity (representative of a legal entity) who voluntarily completed Registration and/or began using any services of the Site.

2.2. Works (Content) – electronic versions of scientific publications, including periodicals, as well as non-periodical publications, presented electronically on the Internet in various formats, posted on the Website of the Electronic Library System, accessible to Users through the Website of the Electronic Library System.

2.3. Catalog – a collection of Works.

2.4. Login and Password are two unique sets of characters that identify the User.

2.5. The website “Electronic Library System” is an information resource on the Internet owned by the Federal State Unitary Enterprise “Publishing House “Nauka”, located on the domain www. .

2.6. Site Administration - employees authorized to manage the Site, acting on behalf of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Publishing House "Nauka"

2.7. Downloading – recording by the User of Works into the computer memory.

2.8. Billing is a payment accounting system.

2.9. User Account – Authentication and personal data of the User stored on the servers of the Electronic Library System Site. An account is created as a result of the User's registration procedure and may be required in order to take advantage of certain features or certain functions of the Site.

3. Subject of the Agreement

3.1. The “Electronic Library System” provides the User with the opportunity to view, read and download Works presented in the Catalog on a paid basis.

3.2. The user can register and pay for a preliminary annual (partial annual) subscription for the ability to view, read and download electronic versions of Works, as well as a preliminary subscription for the opportunity to receive a collection of Works that are not posted in the Catalog at the time of registration and payment.

4. Responsibilities of the parties

4.1. Responsibilities of the “Site Administration”:

4.1.1. Provide the User with the opportunity to view, read and download the Work on the Site no later than 24 hours from the moment Billing confirms the payment made and identifies the User as the payer of the payment made. If the User registers and pays for a preliminary subscription in accordance with clause 3.2. Agreement, to provide the User with the opportunity to view, read and download the Work no later than 24 hours from the moment of their placement in the Catalog, subject to confirmation by Billing of the previously made payment and identification of the User as the payer of the payment made.

4.1.2. Do not disclose to third parties the Login and Password, the User’s email address, as well as other information received from the User during registration.

4.1.3. Notify the User of changes to the terms of the Agreement and its Appendices by posting relevant information on the Electronic Library System Website at least 30 (thirty) calendar days before the changes come into force.

4.2. User Responsibilities:

4.2.1. Register on the “Electronic Library System” website. Set a Login and Password, the uniqueness of which is confirmed by the “Site Administration”. At the same time, strictly and strictly follow the instructions of the Site Administration on the registration procedure posted on the “Electronic Library System” Site.

4.2.2. Pay for the opportunity to view, read and download Works in accordance with clause 4 of the Agreement.

4.2.3. Ensure the confidentiality of the Login and Password provided during registration.

4.2.4. Use the downloaded Works exclusively for personal purposes. In this case, the User is granted the following rights to use the Works:

provide remote access on the Internet through the Website of the Electronic Library System to Works, which means the ability to search, view, download and read Works.
print out individual parts of the Works for archival purposes only.
record and store individual parts of the Works in the memory of a computer owned by the User for archival, educational and research purposes;
quote in the original and in translation for scientific, research, polemical, critical, informational and educational purposes, excerpts of Works to the extent justified by the purpose of quoting,
reproduce in newspapers, broadcast or broadcast by cable for public information certain parts of the Works to the extent justified by the informational purpose.
the use of the Works (their component parts) under this Agreement is carried out with the obligatory indication of the name of the authors (co-authors) of the Works (their component parts), the name of the copyright holder of the Works indicated in the Work.

4.2.5. The user does not have the right:

transfer or distribute downloaded Works to third parties, either in whole or in part, except for the cases provided for in clause 4.2.4. Agreements;
communicate publicly the Works in full, through well-known broadcast channels, such as radio, television, etc., except for the cases provided for in clause 4.2.4. Agreements;
reproduce the Works, that is, make copies of the Works or parts thereof in any material form if this reproduction is for the purpose of further distribution;
make the Works available to the public using the Internet and other digital networks, either in whole or in part;
change or otherwise process the texts of the Works.
print the entire Work, which is a magazine issue, magazine or book;
post links to the Works available for use by the User on any resources in such a way that a third party has access to these Works. In particular, the User is prohibited from providing third parties with information necessary to gain access to personal pages of the Site that require User authorization.
use other software for automatic searching and downloading, except those implemented on the Electronic Library System website
Failure by the User to comply with the requirements of clause 4.2.5. The Agreement is a violation of copyright law and entails the consequences specified in clause 10.1 and clause 10.2 of the Agreement.

4.2.6. All information posted on the Electronic Library System Website about the procedure for using the Catalog, the payment procedure and other features of the execution of the Agreement is an integral part of the Agreement and is binding on the User.

5. Payment terms

5.1. The user makes an advance payment in Russian rubles on the terms specified on the Website of the Electronic Library System.

5.2. Payment methods are indicated on the Site in the Payment Methods section. The agreed payment method is the method selected by the User from the available payment methods on the Electronic Library System Website.

5.3. The procedure for payment using bank cards is indicated on the Website in the Payment Methods section. Transactions using bank cards can only be performed by the card holder. Authorization of transactions on bank cards is carried out by the bank. Acceptance and processing of payments using bank cards is carried out by the electronic payment provider Yandex.Kassa or another electronic payment provider. The “site administration” does not process, including collecting and storing Users’ bank card data.

5.4. The price for providing the User - an individual with the opportunity to view, read and download Works is indicated on the Website of the Electronic Library System in the relevant sections. For users who are legal entities, prices are sent by the “Site Administration” upon request through agreed communication channels. The “Site Administration” has the right to unilaterally change current prices by posting relevant information on the Website of the “Electronic Library System” or informing Users in any other accessible way. Any price change does not affect already paid access.

6. Responsibility of the parties. Limitation of liability of the Electronic Library System.

6.1. The User assumes full responsibility and risks associated with the use of the Catalog.

6.2. The User is fully responsible for the use of the Login and Password by third parties.

6.3. The User is fully responsible for the use by third parties of information transmitted by the “Site Administration” to the email address specified by the User during registration.

6.4. The “Site Administration” is not responsible for any expenses of the User or direct or indirect damage that may be caused to the User as a result of using the Catalog.

6.5. The “site administration” is not responsible for the quality of access to the Catalog via the Internet.

6.6. Under no circumstances is the “Site Administration” liable for the use of the Login and Password by third parties.

6.7. The “site administration” is not responsible for direct or indirect damage incurred by the User as a result of data transmission errors, failures/defects in the operation of software and/or equipment, data loss and damage, errors in processing or displaying data, delays in data transmission and others failures that occurred through no fault of the Site Administration.

6.8. The Electronic Library System website and all related services are provided on an “as is” basis, without any express or implied warranties that the said Website and/or services may or may not be suitable for a particular purpose of use.

6.9. The “Site Administration” is not responsible for the inability to use the Site and (or) related services by the User for any reason, including, but not limited to: errors, omissions, interruptions, deletion, defects, delay in processing or transmission of data, disruption of work communication lines, equipment malfunction, any technical failures or other problems of any telephone networks or services, computer systems, servers or providers, computer or telephone equipment, software, failure of providers of certain services, theft, destruction or unauthorized access to User materials , posted on the Site or in any other place, etc.

6.10. Under no circumstances is the “Site Administration” liable for any expenses of the User or direct or indirect damage, including lost profits or lost data, damage to honor, dignity or business reputation that may be caused to the User as a result of using the Site and (or) related services .

6.11. If it is impossible for the “Electronic Library System” to provide the User with the opportunity to view, read and download the Work for reasons beyond the control of the “Site Administration”, the “Site Administration”, at the request of the User, returns the received advance payment. In this case, the amount of responsibility of the “Site Administration” is limited to the amount of the advance payment received from the User for the opportunity to view, read and download the Work, which was not provided.

7. Duration of the Agreement

7.1. The Agreement comes into force from the moment the User accepts the terms of the Agreement (each Appendix to the Agreement comes into force from the moment the User accepts the terms of this Appendix) and is valid until the Parties fully fulfill their obligations.

8. Force majeure circumstances

8.1. The parties are released from liability for partial or complete failure to fulfill obligations under this Agreement if such failure was a direct consequence of force majeure circumstances (force majeure circumstances) that arose after the conclusion of the Agreement, as a result of extraordinary events, namely: fire, flood, hurricane and earthquake or restrictions imposed by government authorities on the activities of any of the Parties, and if these circumstances could not be foreseen or prevented by the Parties by reasonable measures.

9. Other conditions

9.1. In the event that any provision or any part of the Agreement is held to be invalid or unenforceable, the remaining provisions and portions of the Agreement will remain in full force and effect.

9.2. In all other respects, the Parties to the Agreement agreed to be guided by the current legislation of the Russian Federation.

9.3. The “Site Administration” has the right to make changes to the Agreement with the obligatory posting of the relevant information on the Website of the “Electronic Library System” no later than 30 (thirty) calendar days before the relevant changes come into force.

9.4. Relations between the “Site Administration” and the User, who are legal entities, are regulated on the basis of separately concluded Agreements, which specify the specific terms of the relationship between the Parties.

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Historical site Bagheera - secrets of history, mysteries of the universe. Mysteries of great empires and ancient civilizations, the fate of disappeared treasures and biographies of people who changed the world, secrets of special services. The history of wars, mysteries of battles and battles, reconnaissance operations of the past and present. World traditions, modern life in Russia, the mysteries of the USSR, the main directions of culture and other related topics - everything that official history is silent about.

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Everything connected with the rulers of Ancient Egypt is shrouded in many secrets and mysteries. And the decorations found in these tombs are no exception. They amaze not so much with their luxury and beauty, but with the abundance of mysterious signs and symbols.

On April 24 this year, Sathya Sai Baba, a Hindu spiritual teacher (guru) who had millions of followers around the world, died in southern India. But some considered him a living god, while others considered him a clever hoaxer. So who was he, this man who performed miracles?

Since the end of World War II, the intelligence services of all countries of the world have been searching for and bringing to trial those hiding Nazi criminals. The atrocities committed by the Nazis half a century ago shocked humanity so much that judges do not take into account the statute of limitations, and those convicted are not subject to amnesty...

It’s a strange gift to predict and predetermine the events of your own life. Much of what Mikhail Afanasyevich said in relation to himself and his works came true. And with his legendary phrase “Manuscripts don’t burn,” he completely ensured the resurrection of some of his works. The diary, thrown by the author into the stove after it was returned by the security officers, turned out to be copied and saved. The early play “Sons of the Mullah,” burned by Bulgakov in 1921, was discovered in a prompter’s copy many years later in Grozny...

She thought she would receive three years probation, but the Soviet court sentenced her to capital punishment. 1979 was declared the Year of the Woman, and she was counting on a pardon. But on August 11, 1979 at 6 o’clock in the morning she was shot...

Albania has always been an extremely exotic country. In Soviet times, there were childish wonders there, but even before the arrival of the communists in Albania, life was in full swing: what was King Zog I, the only Muslim king in all of Europe, worth...

In 1998, Chinese information Agency Xinhua announced the closure of the last factory in Harbin that produced shoes for women with bandaged feet. Shoes, with a thousand-year history, have become a thing of the past.

January 15, 1965. The Chagan River is 100 kilometers from Semipalatinsk. Early in the morning the earth swayed sharply and reared up. A 170-kiloton nuclear charge planted deep inside - nine Hiroshimas - tore up the earth. Boulders weighing about a ton were scattered over eight kilometers. A dust cloud obscured the horizon for several days. At night, a crimson glow glowed in the sky. At the site of the explosion, a crater with a diameter of about 500 and a depth of up to 100 meters with melted obsidian edges was formed. The height of the rock pile around the crater reached 40 meters.

Abbreviations.

JSC - Archaeological discoveries.

VI - Questions of history.

GAZ - Historic-archaealagic collection.

State Historical Museum - State Historical Museum.

IA - Institute of Archeology.

IGAIMK - News of the State Institute of History of Material Culture.

KSIA - Brief communications of the Institute of Archeology.

KSIIMK - Brief communications of the Institute of the History of Material Culture.

LOIA - Leningrad branch of the Institute of Archeology.

MIA - Materials and research on the archeology of the USSR.

MISO - Materials on the study of the Smolensk region.

PIDO - Problems of the history of pre-capitalist societies.

RA - Russian archeology.

RANION - Russian Association of Research Institutes of Social Sciences.

SA - Soviet archeology.

SAI - Code of archaeological sources.

NE - Middle Ages.

SE - Soviet ethnography.

Tr. - Works.

AdW -Akademie der Wissenschaften.

AG - Archäologia Geographica.

AH - Archæologia historica.

AP - Archeologia Polski.

AR - Archeologicke rozhledy.

AuF - Ausgrabungen und Funde.

AÚSAV - Archeologický ústav Slovenskej Akademie vied.

ČMM - Časopis Moravskěho muzea v Brně.

ČsČH - Československý časopis historický.

FAP - Fontes archaeologiæ poznanienses.

EAZ - Ethnographisch-archäologische Zeitschrift.

HČ - Historický časopis.

HD - Historická demografie.

HG - Historická geografie.

IHKM - Institut historii kultury materialnej.

KH - Kwartalnik historyczny.

KHKM - Kwartalnik historii kultury materialnej.

MZP - Materiały Zachodniopomorskie.

NO - New review.

PA - Památki archeologické.

PAN - Polska Akademie nauk.

PBA - Polskie badania archeologiczne.

SA - Slovenian archeologia.

Sl.Ant. - Slavia antiqua.

SNM - Sbornik národniho muzea v Praze.

SPFFBU - Sbornik praci filosoficke fakulty brnenské university.

Spr.A. - Sprawozdania archeologiczne.

SSNM - Sbornik slovenského národného muzea.

ŠZAÚSAV-Študijne zvesti Archeologickeho ústava Slovenskej Akademie vied.

VVM - Vlastivědny věstnik moravský.

WA - Wiadomośći archeologiczne.

ZAM - Zeitschrift für Archäologie des Mittelalters.

ZfA - Zeitschrift für Archäologie.

ZfAuA - Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrararchäologie.

ZfAdM - Zeitschrift für Archäologie des Mittelalters.

ZfG - Zeitschrift für Geschichtwissenschaft.

Rier Ya.G. Essays on the history of medieval civilizations. Mogilev. 1997.

Rier Ya.G. History of medieval civilizations. Part I. Western, Central and Southern Europe in the V-X centuries. Part 2. Asia, Africa and America in the V – XV centuries. Mogilev, 2001.

See History of the Middle Ages. M. 2000, vol.2.

Germany can undoubtedly be considered bourgeois since the 19th century. ( Kruglova N.I. About the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times in Germany. Problems of spiritual development // Ideology and politics in ancient and medieval history. Barnaul. 1995. pp. 142-151).

Libman M.Ya. Late Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times: the experience of a comprehensive study // World culture. Tradition and modernity. M. 1991. P.223-228.

Enterprises that used hired workers who worked manually on the basis of division of labor.

History of Europe. M. 1993. T.3. S.6.

Braudel F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism. T.2. M. 1988.

Townspeople usually leased land to peasants.

Many Western historians previously called this depression the “crisis of feudalism.” Now this point of view is of only historiographical interest.

These processes began most actively at the end of the 15th century.

This is how those who were called kulaks in post-reform Russia arose. Now foreign researchers apply this successful term to the Western European village rich of the time in question.

Kolganov M.V. Own. Pre-capitalist formations. M. 1962. P.342.

Capital- (from Late Lat., caput - head) in the 12th-12th centuries. meant valuables, a stock of goods, a mass of money, money that earns interest.

See, for example: Kotsyubinsky D.A., Malinin Yu.P. The phenomenon of capitalism and the problems of its formation // Socio-political problems in the history of foreign countries. Syktyvkar. 1994. pp. 24-37.

Cm.: Dyakonov I.M. Paths of history. From ancient man to the present day. M. 1994. P.165-166.

15th century Western European cities experienced an epidemic of trade growth. Everything was covered in benches. Rows of shops clogged the main streets of the cities, which often even outraged other residents, who accused the merchants of wanting to get rich without using their hands. But this is a typical manifestation of private initiative in the context of the disappearance of the old form of employment ( Braudel. F. What is France? M. 1997. P.304-305).

Cm.: Diligensky G.G.“The end of history” or a change of civilizations? // Civilizations. M. 1993. Issue. 2. P.44-62; Novikova L.I. Civilization as an idea and as an explanatory principle of the historical process // Civilizations. M. 1992. Issue. 1. P.9-26; Tishkov V.A. Historical evolution and the imperative of survival// General history: discussions, new approaches. M. 1989. P.128-148.

More on this in the next topic.

Cm.: Moldavskaya M.A. On the question of the situation of the urban lower classes in France in the first half of the 15th century // Medieval city. Saratov. 1989. Vol. 9. P.11-121; Medieval Europe through the eyes of contemporaries and historians. M. 1995. Part 5. P. 113.

It was machine production that was the basis of the capitalist economy, and not wage labor itself, for it existed both in antiquity and in the Middle Ages, even in rural communities - let us remember hired shepherds in the Slavic-Byzantine communities of the Vll-Vllll centuries. (according to the "Agricultural Law").

Barg M.A. Place 15th century. in the history of Europe // Questions of history. 1985. No. 3; Ivonin Yu.E. Late Middle Ages or early modern history?//Ibid. 1987. S. No. 1; Rutenburg V.I. Early bourgeois revolutions // Ibid. 1984. No. 3. See also: Burke P. Folk culture of Europe early new age. Mn. 1999. P.12.51.

Proletariat is an evaluative term that signified the sharp difference between the overwhelming majority of hired workers of that time and the position of the majority of the working masses of the classical Middle Ages. The latter possessed, albeit sometimes insignificant, personal property - peasant plots, small workshops - which allowed them to somehow exist. In contrast, the emerging layer of hired workers was deprived of such property and existed exclusively through hired labor. In the Middle Ages, such people were rather exceptions to the general order, marginalized.

Cm.: Kapustin B.G. Retz: V.A.Krasilshchikov. The Transformation of Doctor Faust // Questions of Philosophy. 1995. No. 6. P.154-156; Kon I.S. Discovery of "I". M. 1978.

There is an opinion that amphorae were brought there in the 18th century, but there is evidence of the presence of people of ancient times in Mexico and even Venezuela.

However, the Normans also had a legend about a mythical island with that name, located somewhere in the Atlantic.

There are vague reports that tireless travelers - Irish monks visited North America back in the 7th century, and at the beginning of the 2nd millennium, a sailor from Wells also sailed there. Traces of Vikings have allegedly been found since the 12th century. in the Pacific Ocean, on about. Easter and Peru. Perhaps it was the memory of the Normans that was reflected in the Aztec myth “of giants with milky skin.”

He was born not in Venice itself, but on one of the islands (Korčula) off the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic Sea.

By the way, referring to the ancient Russian lands, he noted that there are “many kings” there, that is, fragmentation reigns, which indicates the reliability of the traveler’s reports. However, recently sinologist Frances Wood from the British Library published a book in which she proves that Marco’s reputation as a liar was deserved, for he traveled no further than Constantinople, and allegedly copied the rest from a Muslim traveler. The researcher argues that Polo “did not notice” either the hieroglyphs or Chinese tea, nor the Great Wall. But one way or another, the Europeans received reliable information about the East.

Braudel F. Structures of everyday life. M. 1986. P.440.

Cm.: Khazanov A.M. The unknown about Vasco da Gama // Questions of history. 2000. No. 8; It's him. The Mystery of Vasco da Gama // New and Contemporary History. 1991. No. 1.

Cm.: Subbotin V.A. Vasco da Gama // Questions of history. 1995. No. 9.

Reports that Columbus could have had Viking maps are unfounded, since cartography among the Normans is generally unknown; only runic inscriptions remained from them.

The famous orientalist Dyakonov believes that Columbus may have been paranoid, and, like many obsessed people, he very energetically achieved results, although not what he expected. The cold and sober people refused to support him, and Isabella is known for her exaltation, that is, also almost paranoia. Her more pragmatic husband, Ferdinand, was skeptical of Columbus. On the voyages themselves, Columbus was helped by the experienced navigator Antonio Pearson ( Dyakonov I.M. Paths of history. From ancient man to the present day. M. 1994. P. 139).

By the way, Columbus chose the most direct route, and it is still used by yachtsmen when crossing the Atlantic. In this direction, a tailwind constantly blows, in a westerly direction - the trade wind.

At first, cigars were hand-thick rolled tobacco leaves. In Spain, the first smokers were sent to prison for 3 years by the Inquisition. But the high cost of tobacco ensured its fashion among the nobility.

Corn is a Turkish name, because this cereal came to Russia in the 17th century through Ottoman-occupied Romania. It can also be noted here that later, when colonizing South America, the Spaniards brought to Europe fruits that the natives called tomatl (large berry). In the Pyrenees they began to be called pomp del Peru (apples from Peru), and the Italians called them pommi d'oro (golden apples: yellow fruits probably ended up in Italy). In Eastern Europe, tomatoes appeared in the 18th century. Potatoes, which are now cultivated in 130 countries out of 167, in its homeland, in the Andes, there were 250 varieties, it was grafted in Europe very slowly. People were afraid of getting poisoned by it - and they poisoned themselves by eating seeds and flowers, fed it to livestock, and ate it themselves only in hungry years. The first mention of its use was in food - from a hospital in Seville in 1573. At first, not knowing how to prepare it, they ate it with lemon or orange juice, soaked it in wine, boiled it in milk. It spread to Europe only in the 18th century due to an increase in grain prices, although it is nutritionally superior to wheat.

In 1981, the descendants of Columbus, father and son, whose name, like his famous ancestor, was Cristobal Colon (in Spanish pronunciation), made a round-the-world trip on a sailboat in honor of the discoverer of America.

Earlier, back in the 12th century, an Arab described the pulmonary circulation, but Servetus might not have known this.

At the turn of the XVI / XVII centuries. French geographer Samuel de Champlain was the first to propose the idea of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama.

It should be noted that the geographical maps of that time contained not only many inaccuracies, but also fiction, and often intentional. So, already in the seventeenth century. The so-called “Artist’s Wife Islands” appeared near the Strait of Magellan, which arose due to the fact that when the artist was drawing a map, his wife, who was sitting next to him, asked him to plot at least one land for her.

The remaining ship ended up with the Portuguese and its crew was hanged as pirates.

Platinum - from Spanish. fee (silver). Initially, the heavy white metal, which resembled silver, was contemptuously called platinum (silver) and was thrown away, considering it a useless admixture to gold. It was even banned from being imported into Spain, as counterfeiters used it to make lightly gold-plated coins and bars. In Colombia, up to 4 tons of platinum were released. Only 40 years later did they come to their senses in Spain, and then only to issue damaged coins.

For information about these states, see Part II of this Manual.

Only in 1981, during construction work in the center of Mexico City on the site of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, gold was discovered, believed to be from the treasures of Montezuma. But not all the treasures have been found yet.

Cm.: Verlinden C., Mathis G. Conquerors of America. Columbus. Cortes // Series "Historical silhouettes". Rostov-on-Don. 1997. pp. 308-310.

Cm.: Dyakonov I.M. Uk. op. P.142.

During these transportations, a kind of natural selection took place - the most resilient survived, which determined the current physical level of American blacks.

Cm.: Brant M.Yu. From the history of European civilization // Teaching history at school. 1997. No. 4. P.31.

Zweig S. The feat of Magellan. Any edition.

Modern Fuggers have a capital of more than 1 billion marks.

Latinized name at birth - Huysmann.

Erasmus (Greek), the same as Desiderius (Latin) - desired.

This is where ideas about natural law arose, and from them to the modern concept of human rights.

In these views one can see the basis of the future of Western European liberalism.

It is significant that in Russia the pedagogical works of Erasmus have been translated since the 17th century. Then they began to translate by order of Peter I. This shows the significance of Erasmus’s works in the era of crisis in traditional societies.

Obscurant - (from Latin obskurans - darkening) - opponent of progress, reactionary. Hence the nickname of the Cologne theologians and their supporters - dark people.

It should be noted that the authorship of all the letters composed by Rubian and Hutten was attributed to specific people - the Cologne obscurantists and their like-minded people. So the satire was not only caustic, but also outside the bounds of the law. However, at that time this was a common occurrence.

His real name is Luder. But according to the fashion of that time, it was Latinized.

Reformation - from lat. reformatio – transformation.

It was in response to Luther's speech that Pope Leo X canonized indulgences in 1518.

Some researchers believe that he did not say it so beautifully, but that was the meaning.

Prokopyev A.Yu. Confessions and politics in the early Reformation: Frederick the Wise and George the Bearded // Problems of social history and culture of the Middle Ages and early modern times. St. Petersburg 1996.

The translation work was completed only in 1534.

Cm.: Ivonin Yu.E., Kazakov M.M., Kerov V.L., Kurbatov G.L., Fedosik V.A. Essays on the history of the Christian Church in Europe. Smolensk 1999. P.96.

Of course, there were translations of the Bible before. As early as 1466, a German translation was made in Catholic Germany. But this was done not for the flock, but for intra-church consumption.

The popularity of Luther's text is evidenced by the fact that in the years 1522-1546. his translations were published 430 times.

The Catechism is a collection of elementary information about Christian dogma.

Jaeger O. Middle Ages. M. 1999. P. 654.

Kin M. Chivalry. M. 2000. P.446.

Cm.: Kautsky K. Predecessors of modern socialism. M. 1925. T.2. P.34-41.

Ivonin Yu.E. and etc. Essays on the history of the Christian Church in Europe, pp. 97-98.

Engels F. The Peasant War in Germany // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. v.7. P.424.

See: Jan Hus, Luther, Calvin, Patriarch Nikon // Life of Remarkable People. Chelyabinsk. 1998. pp. 150-155.

Cm.: Gutnova E.V. Problems of the class struggle of the medieval peasantry in modern non-Marxist medieval studies // Modern foreign non-Marxist historiography. M. 1989.

Ivonin Yu.E., Ivonina L.I. The Thirty Years' War and German policy in France //VI. 2001. No. 5. P.32-51.

See: Jan Hus, Luther, Calvin, Patriarch Nikon, P.168.

Ivonin Yu.E. and etc. Essays on the history of the Christian Church in Europe, pp. 104-105.

F. Engels called this “the second edition of serfdom.”

Only in 1983 did the Vatican restore relations with Sweden, interrupted after its conversion to Protestantism.

Cm.: Lemaitre N. Catholics and Protestants: religious schism in a new light // Questions of history. 1995. No. 10; Gorfunkel A.Kh. Humanism – Reformation – Counter-Reformation // Culture of the Renaissance and the Reformation. M. 1981.

Bitsilli P.M. The place of the Renaissance in the history of culture. St. Petersburg 1996. P.191.

But it was the reformers who led the fight against what they called pagan remnants in Catholicism, comparing, for example, the cult of the Virgin Mary with the cult of Venus, calling the saints the successors of pagan gods and heroes, who took over their functions of healing and protection. Lutherans were more tolerant of popular traditions than Calvinists (See: Burke P. Folk culture of Europe..., pp. 241,248-250).

Cm.: Ivonin Yu.E. and etc. Essays on the history of the Christian Church in Europe, p. 107.

Even the city fathers spoke out against the death penalty for adultery, declaring that then it would be necessary to execute half of the population of Geneva.

Kaganovich B.S. Bitsilli as a cultural historian // Odysseus - 1993. M. 1994.

It was rightly noted that “the fire killed him [Miguel Servetus] for the fanaticism of the 15th century.” (See: Jan Hus, Luther, Calvin, Patriarch Nikon, p. 295). Anatole France in “The Revolt of the Angels” wittily noted that Calvin is “a long and skinny doctor from Geneva, a maniac cold in his fury, a heretic, burning at the stakes of other heretics.

See: History of culture of Western European countries during the Renaissance. M. 1999.P.271-272.

Dyakonov I.M. Paths of history, p.106.

Losev A.F. Renaissance aesthetics. M. 1982. P.235.

Cm.: Shusharin D.V. The beginning of the Reformation: the imperial cities of Southwestern Germany // Middle Ages. 1995. Vol. 58. P.69-87.

Over the next 500 years, the Vatican compiled 40 such lists.

Following the model of Protestant catechisms, Catholic analogues began to be published.

Belief in witches and sorcerers is characteristic of any pagan religion. With the spread of Christianity, the old pagan gods did not lose their power, but began to be identified with the devil, with evil spirits.

Stories about orgies also arose because the composition of witches’ ointments, which were used in the 15th-15th centuries, included parsley, celery, and belladonna, whose alkaloids caused hallucinations and other mental disorders. For example, belladonna caused a feeling of flight, parsley and celery, if rubbed with them erogenous zones, caused sexual visions ( Arnautova Yu.E. Western European medieval "werewolves" // Questions of history. 1997. No. 6. P.161-165).

Cm.: Fevre L. Fights for the history of M. 1991.

Russell D.B. Witchcraft and witches in the Middle Ages. St. Petersburg 2001. P.59.

This is due to a more emotional type of female psyche. Hence, by the way, the well-known female grumpiness, for which since the 11th century. in many communities they were punished by being put in a cage or on a special chair.

Although in the era of Ivan lV in Rus' the persecution of sorcerers sharply intensified, this was more likely due to the general policy of the established repressive regime, in which persecution, including sorcerers, served as a means of intimidating the population. But the absence of a massive and long-term fight against witches in Orthodox countries was also due to the absence at that time of such acute social conflicts as in the West, because the crisis of feudalism in them came later and under different historical conditions.

More precisely - “Hammer on the sorceress”, “Hammer against witches”

Glaser G. Heaven, hell, mountain and road // World Word. L. 1993. No. 4/5.

Some studies cite a figure of 6 million burned witches (See: Sukhovataya V.A. Woman in religious history and feminist theology // Women in history. Issue 2. Mn. 2002. P.44).

Russell, P.345-347.

Ibid., pp. 349-352.

Shverhoff G. From everyday suspicions to mass persecution // Odysseus - 1996. M. 1996. P.326.

Russian name arose from Polish (Jesus - Jesus).

In 1622 Loyola was canonized.

Through the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Jesuits entered the territory of Belarus and founded their educational institutions here - colleges (the easternmost ones are in Mogilev and Mstislavl).

In 1816 the order was restored and exists today. Now there are more than 24 thousand Jesuits in the world.

The famous modernist Pope John Paul II made this concession in October 1999.

Read more about this in the topic about England.

To repair and prepare them, about 50 thousand of the best oak trees were cut down, which significantly undermined the genetic fund of forests, which are important in a country with an arid climate. The bare mountain slopes began to undergo erosion, which washed away a lot of fertile land. It is believed that the environmental damage of this adventure still affects us today.

Cm.: Varyash O.I. Ethno-confessional communities and law in the Pyrenees during the Reconquista era // Communities and people in the medieval world. M.-Saratov. 1992. pp. 108-111.

However, we can also recall the current “deceived investors” who dreamed of modern Eldorados.

Cm.: Bitsilli P.M. The place of the Renaissance in the history of culture, pp. 207-208.

Cm.: Losev A.F. Aesthetics of the Renaissance, p.601.

According to its text, by the way, A.S. Pushkin studied Spanish.

In 1981, the 300th anniversary of Calderon was widely celebrated in Spain. In Madrid, his plays were performed on the streets.

Holland is a forest country. This is how it was in ancient times.

They were usually called Frisians, although the Frisians were only neighbors of the Netherlands.

They included both urban and rural home-based artisans, between whom separate operations for the manufacture of products were distributed.

Workers worked in common areas.

Let us remember that this chronicle is one of the important sources on the history of France during the Hundred Years War.

Literally - rabble, ragamuffins.

The Duke's full name is Ferdinand Alvarez de Toledo.

For example, in 1572, she expelled the ships of the Dutch who had fled there from her ports, which, by the way, accelerated the uprising of the Sea Guezes, who found themselves in a hopeless situation.

Latinized name from Hugo van de Groot.

Cm.: Telushkin J. Jewish world.M. 1992. pp. 169-170.

The surname originated from the Rhine River, at the crossing of which the family lived.

It is kept in the St. Petersburg Hermitage; in 1985 it was partially damaged by a psychopath who poured acid on it. Restored.

The name "Night" in the painting probably arose because of the darkened varnish.

Perhaps the economic crisis of the 50s also had an impact, when England banned the Dutch fleet from importing wine products.

This is a labor-intensive technical crop that increased fertility.

Cm.: Louds D. Henry VIII and his queens. Rostov-on-Don. 1997.P.284-285.

Right there. P.9.

Anna's second pregnancy ended in the birth of a stillborn child. Moreover, evil tongues said that this happened after Henry beat her.

There is an assumption that the cruelty of the lustful king was associated with syphilic brain damage.

Purifiers – from Latin purus – clean. By the way, the people did not like the Puritan preachers for their demands for strict morals and for their desire to educate everyone and everything.

Many believe that Henry's religious policy was influenced by his wives: the staunch Protestant Anne Boleyn, the secret Catholic Catherine Howard, to whom he listened, and the ardent Protestant Catherine Parr, to whom he also listened.

According to English law, the queen's husband did not become king, but was only a prince consort.

Only recently a more comprehensive monograph about her appeared in Russian, written, however, although not in an academically dry manner, but also without sympathy, in a detached manner ( Haig K. Elizabeth I of England. Rostov-on-Don. 1997). It seems that Stefan Zweig most deeply explored and described the struggle of Mary and Elizabeth in the psychological novel “Mary Stuart”. Interesting observations about Elizabeth can also be found in Walter Scott's novel Kenilworth.

It is no coincidence that so much was done to sacralize the image of Elizabeth as the Queen of England: her virginity was promoted, put at the service of the people (she has no other interests); Every year on Easter, she personally washed the feet of as many poor women as she was old (before this, court officials washed their feet 3 times).

Having fled England after the accession of Bloody Mary, he became one of the founders of the emigrant Calvinist community in Geneva in 1555, with which, as noted, the Puritan movement in England began.

Only the Pope allowed marriage with relatives of the Catholic nobility.

Cm.: Chernyak E.B. Five centuries of secret war. M. 1991.

The final unification of England and Scotland took place only in 1707.

This did not prevent the Catholic Church from declaring More a saint in 1935 because he opposed the reforms of Henry Vlll.

Hythlodeus - from ancient Greek. words are nonsense and chatterbox. Utopia, also from ancient Greek. – a non-existent place, a fictional country.

Braudel F. What is France? M. 1997. Part 2.

Grangousier (father of Gargantua), fr. – Big Throat, Glutton. Gargantua is a giant from French fairy tales. Pantagruel is the demon of thirst in the French mysteries of the 15th century.

The existing Russian translation of the novel very accurately conveys the language of Rabelais.

Mentioning the devil in relation to a servant of God is sacrilege.

Almost all the names in the novel are speaking, which is why, in our case, an adequate Russian translation is so important.

Nostradamus - from the Notre Dame Church, where he was baptized.

Chernyak E.B. Secrets of France. M. 1966. P.115. See also: Penzensky A.A. Michel Nostradamus: myths and reality in the light of the latest research // New and recent history. 2002. No. 1. P.130-151. Until recently, there was a lot of commentary on Nostradamus’ predictions about the Bolshevik government, events in Russia, and Chernobyl. More interesting are the interpretations of his quatrains about the expansion of the East (the Muslim world) into Europe under the influence of religious fanaticism.

From spoiled dumb. Eidgenossen - companion, accomplice, as the Swiss Calvinists called each other.

Sometimes he was called Béarn, since he was born in the region of Béarn, near Navarre.

The turbulent events of this time were widely reflected in literature, familiar to the Russian-speaking reader. They are most fully described in the voluminous novels of Heinrich Mann “The Young Years of King Henry lV” and “The Mature Years of King Henry lV”, as well as by Alexandre Dumas the Father in the novels “Queen Marga”, “Countess Monsoreau” and “Forty-Five”. The German anti-fascist Heinrich Mann, writing in exile in Bourbon after Hitler came to power, sought to find parallels and lessons for modern times in French history. Therefore, I strived for accuracy, historical truth. Dumas worked in a different, calmer era of the mid-19th century. For him, history is a supplier of plots for adventure novels. The author models the story at his own discretion. Dumas wrote: “We do not pretend to be historians. If sometimes we become them, it is only when history accidentally descends to the level of a novel, or, more accurately, a novel rises to the level of history.”

Cm.: Costello A. Queen Margo. M. 1999.

It is described in detail by Heinrich Mann in the above-mentioned novel, but even better by Prosper Merimee in his “Chronicle of the Times of Charles lX”.

The first of them was attempted back in 1594 by Jean Chatel.

It is interesting to note that the “Testament” was translated into Russian already under Peter l.

There are more than 3 thousand works dedicated to him alone, and their number is constantly growing.

This, I note, is a whole anthology of the views and thoughts of Socrates, Plato, Plutarch, Cicero, Seneca and others, giving a certain idea of ancient philosophy.

He noticed that contemporaries pierced their earlobes. The Greeks considered this a sign of slavery.

In Latin, his name is “Cartesius”, so the philosopher’s followers were called Cartesians.

Lat. ratio, hence rational.

From Savonarola’s treatise “Governing Florence” (Quoted from: Krasnova I.A. The political structure of Florence in the views of Savonarola // Middle Ages. 1994. Issue 57).

The literal translation of the surname is “harmful nail.”

Batkin L.M. Italian Renaissance. Problems and people. M. 1995. P.351.

In this, Machiavelli approaches the understanding of class struggle, which later became the cornerstone of Marx's political teaching.

This is a certain simplification, also characteristic of Marxism. Let us remember that the early states of the barbarians were created rather as a way of organizing governance and defense in a certain territory, and only gradually, with the monopolization of power and large land ownership, did they turn into an instrument of the interests of the formed ruling class, into an instrument of oppression.

Cm.: Yusim M.A. Machiavelli and Marxism // Middle Ages. M. 1995. Issue. 58.

:Cm. Also: Burlatsky F. Machiavelli's riddle and lesson. M. 1977.

And in this, Machiavelli is the forerunner of both Marx’s political theory and the future practice of real socialism.

Quote By: Yusim M.A. Machiavelli and Marxism // Middle Ages. M. 1995. Issue. 58. Let us remember, however, O'Henry: "Cunning prevents you from being smart."

One can recall the despair of the humanist of the first half of the twentieth century, S. Zweig, who wrote at the height of World War II: “Politicians are the most dangerous race of our time.”

In 1886, at the site of Bruno's execution in Rome, a monument was erected to him with the inscription: "Giordano Bruno from the century that he foresaw, on the spot where the pyre was lit." His works were excluded from the “Index of Prohibited Books” only in 1948. And today, Pope John Paul II has finally rehabilitated Bruno.

Only in 1989 did John Paul II admit that Galileo’s condemnation was wrong, and his book was deleted from the “Index...” only in 1994, and now the church does not insist that the Earth is flat and is the center of the universe.

Another sheet with holes through which the text is written is placed on a sheet of paper, then the grid is removed and the remaining space is filled with a random set of letters. To decipher it, it was enough to put a similar grid on such a sheet and read in the “windows”. This method was widely used in secret correspondence of the 15th-15th centuries.

According to A.F. Losev, “The Last Supper” is Leonardo’s only harmonious work, because he is always in search, since everything in the world is dynamic. The main thing, the artist wrote, is scientific knowledge, for “science is the captain, practice is the soldiers.” But art, Leonardo noted, can understand the world as a whole, therefore painting is higher than science (See: Losev A.F. Aesthetics of the Renaissance, pp. 399-427).

Mona is short for madonna - mistress.

The statue stood in the square in front of the Signoria for 400 years and was only recently moved indoors, and a copy was placed in its place.

At the end of the 20th century, during the restoration they tried to remove these trousers, but it turned out that Volterra scraped off the drawings of his teacher and it was not possible to “undress” the figures.

From it. – pretentious.

Actually, it was far from archaeological work in our understanding - they were looking for ancient works of art and the whole “science” consisted in choosing the right place where there were more finds and determining their artistic value.

See: World History. T. lV. M. 1958. P.357.

Let us remember that external activity, which actually meant aggression against weaker neighbors, was one of the laws of the feudal era.

Cm.: Skazkin S.D. Essays on the history of the Western European peasantry in the Middle Ages. M. 1968. P.349.

Such expansion, just like the Spanish one to America and the Russian one to Siberia, testifies to the impoverishment of the ruling class (See: Ferro M. How to tell a story to children different countries. M. 1992).

One of the most eastern outposts of this order was the Jesuit college in Mstislavl. In Eastern Belarus, in response to the activities of the Jesuits, Orthodox brotherhoods arose, which, by the way, showed some reformation features - the desire of townspeople to control the activities of churches, in particular, to appoint priests and monitor finances.

Cm.: Bumblauskas A. Kolizie historiograficzne w kwestii charakteristyki Wielkiego księstwa litewskiego // Lituania. 1995. 1 (14). S.29-47.

Cm.: Flier A.Ya. On the historical typology of Russian civilization // Civilizations and cultures. Vol. 1. M. 1994. P.94-115.

It should be noted that in Polish and Russian, including Soviet historiography, there was and is a desire to belittle the role of the Uniate Church. On the other hand, in modern Belarusian social thought there is a noticeable exaggeration of the role of the Uniate Church as the national church of Belarusians.

The book of Copernicus was deleted from the “Index of Prohibited Books” only in the 19th century.

The structuring of the Polish gentry was completed only in the 15th century, when, in order to distinguish itself from the peasants, it began to speak French.

See: History of culture of Western European countries during the Renaissance. M. 1999. P.385-386.

Cm.: Ivonin Yu.E., Ivonina L.I. The Thirty Years' War and the German policy of France // Questions of history. 2001. No. 5. P.34-37.

Cm.: Ivonin Yu.E., Ivonina L.I. The Thirty Years' War and the German policy of France... P.42.

For more information about this, see.

3 -The famous Soviet Germanist V.E. Mayer, for example, without denying archaeological methods of dating rural settlements, believed that if reliable written data exists, then contradictory information from archaeologists can be neglected. The authoritative Slavist V.D. Korolyuk had a contradictory attitude towards the possibilities of archeology in the study of medieval Slavic issues. In the early 60s. he optimistically assessed the role of archaeological research in studying not only the material conditions of a society, but also its social structure. But decades later, the scientist actually denied the role of archeology in understanding the forms of “organization of social production and social relations of the social organism under consideration,” the religious ideas of the Slavs of the U-UP centuries. . Although by the 70s. West Slavic medieval archeology already had significant achievements. An underestimation of the role of archeology in the study of early Slavic society is also noted by G. G. Litavrin, who is attentive to its achievements. St. Petersburg historian A.Yu. Dvornichenko spoke very disparagingly about archaeological arguments [see. 287, p. 124]. It is no coincidence that in the review of the 50th anniversary edition of the collection “The Middle Ages” the role of auxiliary disciplines is noted, but archaeological research is not mentioned. In general, skepticism of historians usually appears when archaeological data in some way does not agree with conclusions based on written materials .

Although L.S. Klein’s conclusion that archeology on its own is not capable of reconstructing the entire historical process is quite justified, one can hardly unconditionally agree with his remark that historical conclusions from archaeological material are a step beyond the competence of the archaeologist, leading to a distortion of the historical reality. It seems that, without avoiding general historical conclusions, the archaeologist should remember this remark by Klein as an indication of the existing danger and the need for caution in assessments. It is possible to overcome this danger by constantly comparing the results obtained with materials from other (preferably adjacent) territories, as well as with the conclusions of other historical disciplines: especially history, historical geography, historical linguistics, historical demography, etc. I think P.P. Tolochko is right in that that the main thing in archeology is historicism.

It is noteworthy that in the recently published manual by I.V. Dubov, the archeology of ancient Russian rural settlements is not touched upon at all.

L.V. Alekseev recently noted that Belarusian archeology needs to go beyond the borders of the republic and rise to the level of historical generalizations above material material.

Therefore, the bibliographic list that concludes the book almost does not include numerous small publications devoted to individual monuments or other local subjects, which, however, are extremely important in the study of mass material. If there are many publications of one author that are important to us, the list usually includes later ones, in which the reader will also find links to previously published works of these authors used by us.

Read the journal Herald of Ancient History online. Bulletin of Ancient History (18 issues). Force majeure circumstances

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