Adverbs in Polish. Polish dialects (polskie przysłówki): word formation and forms of degrees of comparison. We bought a red dress more expensive than a green one

Essence of the question

In this article, we will talk about why for a Russian-speaking person there is so much confusion in this, by and large, not the most difficult topic of Polish grammar. As a rule, it is not difficult to master the corresponding endings, and even the alternations that are found in abundance along this stretch of the path are a solvable matter. The biggest difficulties we have with you arise when using comparative degree adjectives and adverbs - we begin to confuse them. Why? Everything is very simple: in Russian they often coincide with us. For example:

Red dress expensive than green.

We bought a red dress expensive than green.

Please note that in the first option, the word "more expensive" answers the question "what?" and in Polish it will sound “droższe” (from the adjective drogi), and in the second - to the question “how?” - "drożej" (from the adverb drogo). As we see in Russian, this is one word, therefore in Polish we often confuse them, which is absolutely impossible to do.

Solution

The easiest way to solve a problem is to train yourself to ask the question: “what?” or how?". However, even here there can be difficulties. To avoid them, let's go back to the Russian language lessons in the fifth grade of high school and remember that:

Adjective is the part of speech that denotes object attribute.

Adverb- part of speech denoting sign of action.

Translated into normal language, this means that the adjective always refers to the noun (or pronoun), in our case, the dress. We are talking about which dress is more expensive. And the adverb always refers to the verb, in our case they bought it as - more expensive.

Since the Russian language often does not give us the opportunity to distinguish between Polish adjectives and adverbs in comparative or superlatives, we just have to understand what word it refers to. And if it refers to a noun, then we can safely put the suffix " -szy", and if to the verb, then" -ej».

No, really. You can do without particles if you want to look like a cardboard robot. It is the particles that add color to speech, emphasize the emotional component of the phrase, and even add meaning.

Since particles are an indeclinable part of speech, your task today is quite simple - to familiarize yourself with and learn the most popular particles of the Polish language. You won't have to bow or conjugate anything today.

Particles in Polish

We can go to the specific ones, understanding a little about what these particles are. In the examples of particles, I will give everything that I managed to find on the topic. The most terrible thing here turned out to be that in every other textbook there is a different explanation, different names for groups of particles. Not part of speech, but some kind of ghost. I tried to adhere to the Polish classification, if anything, the Aleklasa.pl portal partially helped me in this.

Another interesting and funny fact about particles. Particle in Polish it is partykula. And so I decided to write an article about partykułach języka polskiego, and decided to ask my Polish friends why there is so little information on this topic on the net, and in textbooks too. To which my Poles friends stared at me with the words: “Co to jest partykuła?” And these are not the worst and most uneducated friends, I tell you.

Classification of particles (partykuł) in Polish

Since particles add extra meaning to what we say, in Polish they are divided into:

• interrogative particles (pytające): for example, czy, czyz, czyżby. There is also a particle -li(we always write it together with the previous word), which is now already obsolete, the modern counterpart is czy.
  • Czy Ania wrocila? Is Anya back?
  • Znasz li ten kraj?=Czy znasz ten kraj? - You know whether you this country?
  • Czyzby memoriał o mnie? — Really did he forget me?
  • Czyz nie mówiłam, że tak będzie?! — Is I didn't say it would?
• affirmative particles (twierdzące): common Polish so, wszak, owszem, zaiste, and colloquial no, ano, ale, juści (with the latter there is such that they are already used in few places, it was difficult for me to find examples)
  • Czy mowisz po angielsku? — Tak, troche. — Do you speak English? — Yes, A little.
  • I jak, oblałaś ten egzamin? - no. Poprawka we wrześniu. — And what, you flunked this exam? — Well. You can fix it in September.
  • Jest to wszak duża suma pieniędzy. — This after all A huge amount of money.
• negative particles (przeczące): nie, ani, wcale, ni-.
  • To nie jest problem. — This Not problem.
  • Nie mam ani Grosza. — I have no neither penny.
  • Situacja wcale się nie poprawiła. — Situation at all hasn't improved.
• conditional particles (przypuszczające): bym, byś, by, byście, byśmy, by(i.e. particles conditional mood(tryb przypuszczający)):
  • On by to zrobil dobrze. — He would it did well.
  • Zrobil byś tutaj porządek! — Navel would you're in order!
• doubt(watpiace): bodyj, chyba, moze, pewnie
  • Pewnie, martwimy się o nich. — Certainly we are worried about them.
  • Chyba lepsze to niż nic. — Maybe, it's better than nothing.
  • Moze mógłbyś wyslać mi maila. — Maybe you could email me.
• incentive particles (rozkazujące): bodyj, niech, niechaj, oby, Zeby
  • Niech ona w końcu to skończy! — Let she will finish it eventually!
  • Oby twoje słowa stały się prawdą. — I wish your words turned out to be true.
  • Oby się tak stało! — I wish it was!
• amplifying particles (wzmacniajace): -ć, ci, cic, ino, no, ino ta, tam, też, toć, —że, -ż, to, przecież, alez.
  • A to ci dopiero history! — Here is the story!
  • Chodz no! Ja tam nie pójdę. — Go! I won't go there.
  • Daj Zee mi spokoj! — leave same me at ease!
  • Chodz Zee! — Let's go same!
  • – Pani pozwoli? - Alez oczywiscie. — Will you allow? — Well Certainly!
  • amplifying particles can double: Jak zez mam mowic? — How should I speak?
• excretory and about restrictive particles (ograniczające): tylko, jedynie, choć, chociaz, nawet.
  • Posadź tam chociaz dwa krzaki. — plant it there at least two bushes.
  • Mam tylko pięć złotych. — I have only five zlotys.
  • Mogę jedynie porozmawiać z twoimi rodzicami. — I can the only thing talk to your parents.
• uncertain particles (nieokreślone): badz, byle, lada, -kolwiek, -ś , usually paired with indefinite pronouns: for example, kto bądź, byle gdzie, lada kto, czyjkolwiek, jakiś:
  • Nie rzucaj rolek byle gdzie. — Don't drop rollers anywhere.
  • Ten dzieciak could być czyjkolwiek. — This kid could be anyone.
  • Zaczęliśmy się spotykać jakiś miesiac temu. — We started dating some a month ago.

Spelling of particles (partykuł) in Polish

• We write verbs with particles together -ze , -li .
  • Idzu Zee w końcu do domu. — Go home after all.
  • Zrob Zee sobie chwilę przerwy. — Give yourself a minute break.
  • Miej Zee chociaż trochę rozsądku. — Have at least some common sense.
  • Znasz li tę kraine? — Do you know this region?
• Particles are written separately from the verb no, czy, niechaj, niech, bodaj, oby.
  • Podejdź n o tutaj! — Come here!
  • Niechaj mnie dzisiaj nikt o nic nie prosi! — Let no one ask me for anything today = ask me for nothing!
  • Niech nikt się nie skarzy! — Let no one complain!
  • O byś się nie zająknęła podczas jutrzejszej recytacji. — I wish you didn't start stuttering during tomorrow's performance.

Eternal problems with "nie"

We write the particle "nie" c together:

• participles from adjectives, for example:
  • nieznający - unknowing;
  • nierosnący - non-increasing;
  • nieodgadniony - incomprehensible;
  • nieugięty - inflexible, inflexible;

• nouns, for example:
  • nieporządek - disorder;
  • nieśmiałość - timidity (timidity);
  • nieostrożność - imprudence;
  • nieobecność - absence;

• adjectives equally, for example:
  • niegrzeczny - impolite;
  • nieduży - small;
  • niegłupi - not stupid;

• adverbs from adjectives equally, for example:
  • nielekko - not easy;
  • nieładnie - ugly;
  • niedobrze - not good.

Separately, we write the particle "nie" with:

• numerals, for example:
  • nie dwa - not two;
  • nie piętnasty - not the fifteenth;
  • (exceptions: niejeden - not one (meaning 'many');

• pronouns, for example:
  • nie ja - not me;
  • nie wy - not you;
  • nie tamten- not the one;
  • (exceptions: niejako - somehow, nieco - slightly, nieswój - not your own = not in yourself;) ;

• verbs in the personal form, for example:
  • nie pójdę - I won't go;

• infinitives = impersonal verbs, for example:
  • nie robić - not to do;
  • nie śpiewać - do not sing;

• impersonal verb forms that end in -no,-to, For example:
  • nie umyto - not washed;
  • nie zrobiono - not done;

• participles from adverbs (imiesłowami przysłówkowymi), for example:
  • nie robiąc - not doing;
  • nie rozumiejąc - not understanding;
  • nie przeczytawszy - not having read;
  • nie zrozumiawszy - not understanding;

• adjectives in the highest and highest degree, for example:
  • nie większy - not bigger;
  • nie głupszy - no more stupid;
  • nie największy - not the biggest;
  • nie najgłupszy is not the dumbest;

• adverbs from adjectives in the degree of the highest and highest, for example:
  • nie lepiej - not better;
  • nie gorzej - not worse;
  • nie najlepiej - not the best.

But of course there are exceptions:

We write "nie" separately with a noun, an adjective and a participle from an adjective, when there is an opposition in the sentence (everything is like in Russian):

• To nie przyjaciel, ale wrog. It's not a friend, it's an enemy.
• Mieliśmy nie łatwy, ale trudny egzamin. — We had not an easy, but a difficult exam.
• Talerz był nie umyty, ale brudny. — The plate was not clean, but dirty.

And other exceptions like:

• niewiele - a little, niejaki - some, niektórzy - some, niekiedy - once, niezbyt - not too much;
• verbs: niedowidzieć - not to see (‘to see badly’), niedomagać — to feel unwell (‘to be sick’), niedosłyszeć — to not hear (‘to hear badly’), nienawidzić — to hate.

Spelling with particle "by"

Write " by" (and its Polish derivatives: bym, byś, byśmy, byście) merge with:

• personal forms of verbs in the subjunctive mood, for example:
  • zrobiłbym - I would do;
  • poszłaby - she would go;
• with unions gdy, że, a, for example:
  • gdyby - if only;
  • żeby - to;
  • aby - to;
• with a comparative expression, for example:
  • jakby - as if;
  • niby - like.

We write separately by" With:

• impersonal forms, for example:
  • zrobiono by - would be done;
  • uszyto by - would be sewn;
• modal expression that acts as a verb, for example:
  • można by - it would be possible;
  • warto by - it would be worth it;
  • trzeba by - it would be necessary.

After all this, I would like to leave a few more examples here, but after thinking, I'll leave it for the next article. 🙂 And in general, if this material seemed to you a punishment from heaven, seriously, wait for the next article, there I, without any negative, affirmative and vague concepts, will simply give a list of the most necessary in Polish speech particles. Everything I love. 🙂 Although I also love this article, there are many, many examples and in general everything is clear. 🙂

P.S. I must have made a couple of mistakes in this. bulk material(of course, I hope not), so if you find something like that, I will be grateful if you leave a comment on this.

If the material was interesting and useful, I will be glad to support! I am gathering on a good camera to start making quality tutorial videos for you. 🙂

adverb (przysłó wek) - an invariable part of speech (with the exception of qualitative adverbs), which answers the questions: how? how? Where? When? These words denote a sign of action, state or quality. Let's see how they are formed.

In a sentence, adverbs usually appear next to a verb, adjective or other adverb and perform the function of an adverbial or predicative (these are the so-called state category words that denote the state of the subject and often act as a predicate; for example: jest mi vaguely i zimno I'm sad and cold. In accordance with the syntactic function, adverbs also include pronominal adverbs ( tutaj, dlaczego, wszę dzie, nigdy and others).

Polish adverbs formed from adjectives

Adverbs in Polish are most often formed from adjectives with the help of suffixes (Poles often call them endings) -e, -o . However, there are no fixed rules for the use of these formants.

More often — o it happens in adverbs formed from adjectives with a base on a soft or hardened (functionally soft) consonant. For example: gorzki – Gorzko, duż y – duż o, tani – Tanio, gł upi – gł upio). And for a letter — e adverbs that were formed from adjectives with a solid stem end, while the stem softens, often alternating sounds occur. For example: ciekawy – ciekawie, dobry – dobrze. But this is not a strict or regular rule.

Therefore, it is easier not to look for some kind of logic, but to memorize Polish dialects with exactly those suffixes with which Poles usually use them. But note: some words can have two correct forms(with both suffixes).

As you can see, a total of forms with a final -O more. However, keep in mind: not all dictionaries offer the same forms as the only correct ones, democratic editions allow you to form both forms from many adjectives, especially in colloquial speech. So do not be afraid to make a mistake - the Pole will surely understand you.

Also from some adjectives you can form compound adverbs by other means:

• excuse po and suffix -u (rosyjski - po rosyjsku);
• excuse po and suffix -emu (nowy - po nowemu);
• excuse z and suffix -a (daleki – z daleka);
• excuse na and suffix -o (lewy - na lefto);
• excuse za and suffix — o (szybki – za szybko) - here is a suggestion za has the meaning of 'too much'.

Polish dialects formed from numerals

To construct these forms, the preposition is used po and suffix — e: pierwszy – po pierwsze(Firstly), drugi – po drugie(Secondly), trzeci – po trzecie(Thirdly), czwarty – po czwarte(fourth) and so on.

Adverbs formed from nouns

Simple adverbs are forms of nouns in indirect cases without a preposition ( razem, czasem, rankiem). A complex- nouns in various oblique cases with prepositions: wó wczas(Then), naprzó d(forward), po trochę (by a little), powoli(slowly), na czas(temporarily).

Moreover, there are no firm rules for the continuous and separate writing of such forms. They just need to be remembered. Sometimes there are two options at all: wprzó d And w przó d(earlier).

Degrees of comparison of adverbs (stopniowanie przysłowków)

Adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison: comparative (stopień wyższy) and superlative (stopień najwyższy).

Simple Comparative Forms formed with the help suffix — ej , which is attached to the stem of an adverb without final — o or — e. For example: nudno – nudniej, pię knie – pię kniej.

If the basis of the adverb has a suffix - k, — ek or - ok, then it disappears. For example: ciężko - ciężej, wysoko - wyżej, krótko - krócej, prędko - prędzej, lekko - lżej, blisko - bliżej, szeroko - szerzej. Also, note: the suffix -ej softens the base, so after some hard consonants you just need to add a letter - i-, and in other cases occur alternation: b//b', p//p', w//w', n//n', ł//l, s//ż, g//ż, ch//sz, r//rz, st//ść, t//ć, d//dz.

Superlatives formed from forms of comparative degree with help prefixes naj -. For example: wyż ej – naj wyż ej, proś ciej – naj proś ciej, cieplej – naj cieplej.

There are also forms of degrees of comparison formed from another base. These words in many languages ​​are exceptions to the general rule. They just need to be remembered.

• dobrze(Fine) - lepiej(better) - najlepiej(the best);
• źle(Badly) - gorzej(worse) - najgorzej(worst of all);
• mał o(few) - mniej(less) - najmniej(least of all);
• duż o(a lot of) - wię cej(more) - najwię cej(most).

In addition, it is possible to form complex forms of degrees of comparison in a descriptive way (stopniowanie opisowe). In this case, before the adverb, you need to put a function word bardziej (over) / mniej(less) - for the comparative degree and najbardziej (most) / najmniej (least of all) - for excellent. For example: Gorzko – bardziej Gorzko – najbardziej Gorzko.

This rule most often works for polysyllabic adverbs, since the addition of prefixes and suffixes makes these words difficult to pronounce.

In colloquial speech, forms of degrees of comparison from some adverbs can be formed using any of these two methods. For example: zł osliwie – zł oś liwiej/ bardziej zł oś livie – najzł oś liwiej/ najbardziej zł oś livie. However, in such cases, the first method is preferable and more correct - simple forms of degrees of comparison.

Adverb ranks by meaning

Traditionally, Polish grammar still divides adverbs into groups in depending on the value: time, place, mode and frequency.

Adverbs of time (przysłówki czasu)

These words do not change, many of them do not form degrees of comparison. Such expressions are often used in speech, so you need to know how they are translated.

Wczoraj(yesterday), dzisiaj = dziś (Today), dziś early(this morning), jutro(Tomorrow), teraz, zaraz(now, currently) nastę pnie(then), póź niej(Later), potem(Then), już (already, right now) niedawno(recently), ubiegł ej nocy(last night), w przyszł ym tygodniu(next week), w zeszł ym roku(last year), ostatnio(V Lately), obecnie(currently), wkró tce(soon), natychmiast(immediately, immediately) jeszcze(more), temu(ago).

Adverbs of place (przysłówki miejsca)

Tutaj = tu(here, here) tam(there), wszę dzie(everywhere), gdziekolwiek(anywhere) nigzie(nowhere, nowhere) w domu(Houses), stą d(from here) stamtą d(from there) ską d(where), na zewną trz(from the outside).

Adverbs of manner and manner of action (przysłówki sposobu)

Boso(barefoot), pieszo(on foot), cał kiem(quite) faktycznie(actually), ewentualnie(Maybe), ewidentnie(obviously), szybko(fast), dobrze(Fine), powoli(slowly), ledwo(barely) głó wnie(mainly), pravie(almost), absolutnie(absolutely), razem(together), Sam(by oneself).

P. S. Antonova

Moscow State University, Moscow

A SPECIAL GROUP OF ADVERBS OF STATE IN THE RUSSIAN AND POLISH LANGUAGES1

1. Introduction

In the languages ​​of the world, there are three constructions that can be used to convey the state of a participant in a situation. These are an attributive construction (a cheerful boy, will not be considered further), an adverbial construction (1) and a secondary predication construction (2):

(1) Ale Gigi smutnopotrzqsnqígíowq i rzek (...)

"But Jigi shook his head sadly and said (...)"

(2) Przez caíy dzien Pawka chodzil smutny z powodu karabinu. "Almost the whole day Pavka walked sad because of the rifle."

The adverb in (1) and the secondary predicate in (2) characterize the participant's emotional state.

The adverbial construction with an adverb of state (NS) and the construction of secondary predication (SP) are not completely identical: they have a number of features that ensure their distribution.

2. Features of NS and VP

2.1. Semantics

Only for the NS is the so-called lower interpretation available, in which the participant may not experience a certain state, but outwardly show its signs:

1 Examples (1)-(3) and (19) are taken from ParaSol Parallel Corpus (http://parasolcorpus.org/); example (4) - from the National Corpus of the Russian Language (http://www.ruscorpora.ru/); other Polish examples are from native speakers.

(3) (...) staraí siq YupowiedzieC wesoto...

"(...) he tried to say it cheerfully

Only for the EP, a circus constant interpretation is possible, in which not only the state of the participant is characterized, but also an additional adverbial relation between the main and secondary predicate is transmitted:

(4) The stretcher seemed empty and made of cast iron. [Vasily Grossman. Everything flows (1955-1963) // October, No. 6, 1989]

(5) Sweet this tea is tasteless.

In (4) VP conveys a concessive attitude; in (5) - conditional. Such an interpretation is not typical for the Polish VPs.

2.2. Syntax

There are restrictions on the syntactic position that the controllers of NS and VP can take (i.e., participants whose state is characterized by NS and VP). The NS controller should be the highest priority in the hierarchy of semantic roles. In (6), the NS can only refer to an indirect object, since it has a higher priority semantic role than the subject (subject of perception vs. object of perception):

(6) Pietiai yuL/zostaí radosnie*i, ]przez nas¡ rpulshpu. "Petya! was joyfully*!, j was met by us^.

VPs may refer to some contiguous section in the accessibility hierarchy of syntactic groups [Keenan, Comrie 1982]. Russian instrumental EPs can be classified as subject and direct object; Russian and Polish VPs that agree in case with the controller - also to indirect and indirect additions.

In Russian, there is evidence that a higher syntactic position is available for EP with a sirconstant interpretation than for NS. This is evidenced by the fact that only the VP, but not the NS, may not be removed with a yes / no ellipsis (see the properties of this ellipsis):

(7) “Vasya will run around the stage, but Petya will not even be drunk.

(8) * Vasya answered where he was, but Petya sadly / tiredly not.

A special group of state adverbs in Russian and Polish 2.3. Communicative statuses

NNs with an upper interpretation (in which they describe the state of the participant, and not the external manifestations of this state), as a rule, report a characteristic that is not the rheme of the sentence.

The VP is characterized by the communicative status of a narrow rheme, although other communicative statuses are also possible. VP cannot be used in undivided sentences. Example (9) and its Russian translation cannot serve as an answer to the question What happened?:

(9) ???Do pokoju wszedl m^zczyzna wesoly. Expect: "A cheerful man entered the room."

3. A special group of state adverbs

There are several state adverbs in Russian and Polish that behave like secondary predicates. These include Russian dialects in -om (barefoot, naked, naked) and Polish dialects nago, boso, trzezwo, miodo, staro.

3.1. Semantics

For all the adverbs listed above, a sirconstant interpretation is possible:

(10) We are warm and I don’t even freeze barefoot. [Internet]

(11) Nawet (na) trzezwo mogi za duzo powiedziec. "Even sober, he could talk."

(12) Mlodo on mieszkai w Paryzu. "When he was young, he lived in Paris."

3.2. Syntax

Almost all adverbs of this group choose their controller according to the same rules as the VP. Russian adverbs in -th can refer to subject and direct objects, as instrumental EPs (13), (14); Polish dialects have the same set of controllers as the matching EPs (13), (15):

(13) Cz^sto widziano te dziecii bosoi. "These children were often seen barefoot^.

(14) Shei liked to look at him naked*

(15) LubilapatrzeC pa niegOj nagoij.

"She! loved to look at him] naked^naked/.

The adverbs mlodo and staro retain the set of controllers characteristic of NS. So, they cannot refer to a direct object:

(16) Spotkal mniej mlodo*¡.

"He! met me] young^".

Russian adverbs in -th may not be removed with yes/no-ellipsis:

(17) And here's the paradox - in the house of Che's parents (...) I froze like a baby, but in the Golden Temple, even barefoot - no. [Internet]

There are other syntactic properties that distinguish this group of adverbs from other NS and bring them closer to the EP.

For Russian adverbs in -om and Polish adverbs boso, nago, trzezwo, as well as for adjectives, predicative use is possible. For mlodo and staro, predicative usage is not possible.

The considered NS can be used in nominalized predications. In Russian, the use of other NS in nominalizations is prohibited. In Polish nominalizations, some adverbs are allowed marginally.

3.3. Communicative statuses

Like VP, NS of this group cannot be used in undivided sentences. (18) cannot answer the question What happened?:

(18) ???Do po^u wszedl m^zczyzna boso.

Expect: "A barefoot man entered the room."

This group of adverbs is characterized by the same communicative statuses as for the VP. For example, in (19) the adverb has the communicative status of a narrow rheme:

(19) Miaía (...) czame oczy i tej samej lagl>y stopy, lo prawie zawsze chodziía boso.

"She had (...) black eyes and the same color of her feet, because she almost always went barefoot."

A special group of state adverbs in Russian and Polish

So, among the adverbs of the state that characterize the state of the participant, a special group of adverbs was identified, which in their properties are more like the VP than other NS. These adverbs can have an interpretation close to the SR constant interpretation. Most of them may refer to the same participants as the VP. They have communicative statuses characteristic of VP. Finally, Russian adverbs with a circus constant interpretation may not be removed with a yes/nega ellipsis.

What syntactic analysis is optimal for the adverbs under consideration? Do we want to argue that these adverbs, like VP, introduce a predicative group with zero subject (see the analysis of secondary predication in )? In our opinion, there is no need for such complication.

The syntactic behavior of Russian adverbs in -th reflects some past state of the language. From an etymological point of view, these adverbs are forms of the instrumental case of nouns [Vinogradov 1972: 276].

The behavior of Polish adverbs is a confirmation of the idea of ​​the closeness of the meanings expressed by the adverbial construction and the construction of secondary predication, which was expressed in. In the minds of native speakers, these constructions are so close that there was a transfer of the meaning usually expressed by one construction to another. This hyphenation is irregular: boso seems to be more similar to the prototypical VP than mlodo, so the former has the same set of controllers as the VP, while the latter retains a narrower "adverbial" set of controllers.

Thus, in the case of a special group of NNs, we are dealing with clearly marginal linguistic phenomena, which, according to some scientists (see, for example, ), should not necessarily be supported by the syntactic mechanisms existing in the language.

Why did these adverbs turn out to be the closest to the VP? Note that of the adverbs we have considered, only the adverb ^erm>o is characterized by a lower interpretation. For the adverbs boso, nago and Russian adverbs on -om, the lower interpretation is impossible: one cannot outwardly show the absence of clothes or shoes,

being naked or barefoot. For mlodo, staro, the lower interpretation is possible, but, according to native speakers, uncharacteristic:

(20) Mlodo podskoczyl

"He jumped young."

Apparently, the absence of a lower interpretation makes these adverbs more similar to VP.

Literature

Vinogradov 1972 - V. V. Vinogradov. Russian language. Grammar

the doctrine of the word. Moscow: Higher School, 1972. Keenan, Comrie 1982 - E. L. Keenan, B. Comrie. Hierarchy of accessibility of noun phrases and universal grammar // New in foreign linguistics. Issue. XI. M.: Progress, 1982. S. 111-165. Bailyn 2001 - J. Bailyn. The Syntax of Slavic Predicate Case // ZAS Papers

in Linguistics 22, 2001. P. 1-23. Himmelmann, Schultze-Berndt 2004 - N. Himmelmann, E. F. Schultze-Berndt. Depictive secondary predicates in crosslinguistic perspective // ​​Linguistic Typology 8, 2004. P. 59-131. Kazenin 2000 - K. I. Kazenin. Polarity in Russian and the Typology of Predicate Ellipsis. Manuscript, 2000. (http://lingexp.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb441/b2/papers/ruspol.pdf) Madariaga 2008 - N. Madariaga. Grammar change and the development of new case relations. PhD Thesis. University of the Basque Country, 2008. Nichols 1981 - J. Nichols. Predicate Nominals: A Partial Surface Syntax of Russian. Berkley: University of California Press, 1981.

Polish dialects are a rather heterogeneous class of invariable words in terms of semantics and word-formation. In modern Polish, productive models of adverb formation are associated only with the bases of adjectives. Unlike the Russian language, Polish is much more widely used for the formation of adverbs and stems. relative adjectives (planowy - planowo 'according to plan, according to plan', handlowy - hand lowo 'in trade').

In accordance with the semantic features, several categories of adverbs are distinguished: quality adverbs of action(szczerze 'sincerely', pr ę dko 'fast ', z lekka 'slightly'), adverbs of mode of action(dodatkowo 'additionally', na czczo 'on an empty stomach'), adverbs of time(dzi ś 'Today ', za m ł odu ’from a young age’, etc.), adverbs of place (daleko 'far ', wewn ą trz ’inside’, etc.).

It is possible to single out groups of adverbs or separate adverbs with meanings that are not characteristic of the Russian language within the semantic categories common with the Russian language. A group of qualitative adverbs is more represented, which, syntactically referring to the verb, determine not the action, but the object indirectly related to it ( wygl ą da ć m ł odo . "Look young" Ten capelusz wygl ą da ca ł kiem nowo . "This hat looks like new." C ó rka chowa ł a si ę zdrowo "My daughter grew up healthy." etc.). Widely represented in this group are adverbs formed from adjectives denoting color ( Czerwono kwitn ą ce kaktusy . "Cacti blooming with red flowers.", Ubra ć si ę bia ł o "Dress in white." etc.), as well as adverbs formed according to the model na+ - o(na sucho 'dry', na gor ą co 'hot', podawa ć potraw ę na gor ą co 'serve the dish hot', etc.). A group of adverbs with a comparative connotation is distinguished, characterizing the action and its subject by comparison: adverbs with a suffix -O (bohatersko 'heroically', ojcowsko 'fatherly', etc.), prefix-suffix adverbs of models po+ - u, z+ - a(po angelski 'in English', z Niemiecka 'in German, in the German manner', etc.).

The category of adverbs of mode of action is represented in the Polish language by a wider set of semantic groups of individual lexemes. These are adverbs denoting a way of action by pointing to a tool, means or method of performing it ( zawiadomi ć listownie 'report in writing, by letter', podmiot wyra ż ony zaimkowo 'subject expressed by pronoun', etc.).

In the Polish language (in bookish and journalistic styles), adverbs expressing relations are common ( przysłowki względu ). Their function is to limit the scope, limits of distribution and manifestation of a given sign, indicate in relation to what and in relation to what an action is performed ( V ogaty surowcowo 'rich in raw materials', Gorszy gatunkowo 'worse, worse in quality', etc.).

Adverbs in Polish are used in a sentence in the function of attributive and predicative. In the defining function (as circumstances of various semantic types), adverbs are used with verbs, adjectives, nouns ( jecha ć szybko 'go fast', rdzennie Polish 'originally Polish', jajko na mi ę kko 'soft-boiled egg', advertising na sportowo 'advertising in sports style', etc.).

In the predicative function, the adverb appears in one-part impersonal sentences as with a verb copula or a pronominal copula to , and without them, both with the indicator of the subject of the state in D.p., and regardless of the subject ( Deszcz znowu padal. Było zimno i empty. « It started raining again. It was cold and empty." To barzo ł adnie s twojej strony . “It’s very nice of you.”). It is possible to use the adverb-predicate with the subject-noun ( ó sma godzina to nie jest wcze ś nie . "Eight o'clock is not early."

Degrees of comparison of adverbs(Stopniowanie )

Forms of degrees of comparison (comparative and superlative) of qualitative adverbs can be simple (morphological) and complex (descriptive), but never coincide with the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives.

simple shapescomparative degree formed

Adverb stem + suffix-ej (Tanio 'cheap' - taniej , ł atwo 'easy, easy' - ł atwiej ).

simple formsuperlatives formed

Prefixnaj - + adverb stem + suffix -ej (najtaniej , naj ł atwiej ).

If there are suffixes in the basis of the adverb - k , - ek , - ok suffix - ej is attached directly to the root ( ciężko 'hard' - ciężej,najciężej,daleko 'far ' - dalej,najdalej, głęboko 'deep' - głębiej,najglebiej ).

If the stem (or root) ends in a hard consonant, then before the suffix -ej there is an alternation of the consonant with its morphonological soft correspondence ( predko 'fast' - prędzej, najprędzej, bardzo 'Very ' - bardziej, najbardziej, krotko 'short' - krocej, najkrocej and so on.). Some alternations are irregular.

There are suppletive forms of comparative and superlative adverbs ( dobrze 'Fine ' - lepej , najlepej , du ż o 'a lot of ' - wi ę cej , najwi ę cej and so on.).

Descriptive formsdegrees of comparison consist of :

V ardzej + positive adverb form

najbardzej + positiveformadverbs

(szczegołowo 'detailed' - bardzo szczegółowo, najbardziej szczegółowo ).

To indicate a decrease in the intensity of an action sign, the words are used mniej 'less' and najmniej 'least' ( mniej szczeg ół owo 'less detailed').

The degrees of comparison in Polish show a different degree of intensity of manifestation of a sign of an action or another sign, they can determine a verb and an adjective and act as circumstances of a mode of action or as part of a predicate ( Wszystko Wiedzia ł najlepiej . "He knew everything better than anyone."

In Polish, comparison with other objects (producers of an action, a sign carrier, circumstances, etc.) is expressed by constructions od + R.p. or low + Them. P., the difference itself is expressed by the construction o + V.p.(M ó wi g ł o ś niej od niego / g ł o ś niej ni ż on . "He (she) speaks louder than him / louder than him.", Mieszka o pi ę tro ni ż ej . "He/she lives downstairs.", Przyjdę nie wcześniej niż we wtorek. "I'll come no earlier than Tuesday / no earlier than Tuesday).

Adverb coraz together with the comparative form of another adverb conveys the meaning of the strengthening of the feature ( Ola patrza ł a coraz cz ęś ciej na Zegarek . Olya looked at her watch more and more often.

Combined with a pronoun jak or with a pronoun co the degrees of comparison of the adverb denote the modal conditionality of the limiting feature ( co przedzej . "As fast as possible.", Jack najlepiej . "As best you can.").