Conflict- a collision of opposing goals, interests, positions, opinions, views of opponents or subjects of interaction.

The basis of any conflict is a situation that includes contradictory positions of the parties on any issue, or controversial goals and means of achieving them in given circumstances, or a divergence of interests, desires, and finally, holds back the subjects of a possible conflict and its object. However, in order for a conflict to begin to develop, an incident is necessary when one of the parties begins to act, infringing on the interests of the other party. If the opposite side responds in kind, the conflict goes from potential to actual.

In modern psychology, a number of basic elements of conflict are identified:

parties (participants, subjects) of the conflict;

conditions for the conflict;

images of a conflict situation;

possible actions of the parties to the conflict.

Causes of conflicts

Basically, the main causes of conflicts are different axiological (value) attitudes of communicants. A.P. Egides proposes to define two main types of communicative behavior - conflict-generating and syntonic.

Conflict-prone behavior provokes conflict, which arises when the needs of one person interfere with the satisfaction of the needs of another.

Conflict situations arise at every step. For example, two people are talking, a third one comes up. The interlocutors fell silent (conflict situation) or included him in their conversation (syntonic situation). Or: I give a person advice when she asks me (syntonous situation), I give advice when she doesn’t ask me for it (conflict situation). When people talk to you on a first-name basis without permission, this can be the beginning of a conflict situation - where people feel equal, say, in a queue (“I didn’t herd pigs with you!”). But even if you have to endure such rudeness with side or boss, then a sincere friend, in your person, you will agree, he will not acquire a like-minded person. The correct way before the start of a conflict is feignedly friendly phrases like “How can I explain this to you?”, “You don’t understand...”.

Many conflicts arise due to the fact that people understand the same word differently or are sensitive to logical and linguistic errors (illogicality of presentation or use of a word in the wrong sense). At one time, the famous philosopher B. Russell created “semantic philosophy”: she argued that all conflicts, including wars, arise solely due to inadequate perception and interpretation of someone else’s language and other people’s words. For example, in the Ukrainian, Russian and Polish languages ​​there is a different semantic saturation of the word “pity”. In Ukrainian and Polish, “regret” is empathy, understanding the interlocutor’s problems as one’s own. In Russian, the word “regret” is perceived as humiliation.

The conflict flares up especially hotly when there is verbal aggression - unambiguous images and humiliation of the interlocutor or odious denial of his statements (especially without argumentation). If you want to be noble, you should never stoop to these kinds of things in conflict.

However, to create a conflict-generating situation, no special offensive words are needed. A neutral word or sentence can create both a syntonal and a conflict-generating situation if non-verbal factors are included. For example, “thank you” can be said in such an icy tone that the interlocutor will lose all desire to continue the conversation. Thus, conflict situations are formed not only in line with speech activity itself. For example, demonstratively not noticing or not listening to a person when he addresses you, not responding to a greeting (such a primitive imitation of “aristocratism”, as this subject imagines it) is a conflict-generating situation. And even such a factor as a gloomy facial expression can also lead to a quarrel.

Syntonic behavior (from the Latin “tone” - “sound”) is behavior that meets the expectations of the interlocutor. These are any forms of gratitude, smiles, friendly gestures, etc. - what in the neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) technique mentioned above is called “adjustment” to the interlocutor. Example: my wife broke a cup, I, a person, blame her - and this is a conflict-generating situation, but if I blame myself for putting the cup down with my own hands on the edge of the table - this is a syntonic situation.

Most people tend to be neutral most of the time. So, if we take the fulfillment of the requirements of the law, here we can distinguish 3 options of behavior: not obliged, but did (syntonic) obliged, but did not (conflict-prone), obliged and did (neutral). It is not always possible to maintain a neutral line: for example, only a moral monster can calmly listen to how a person close to her is insulted.

Stages of conflict development

First stage- origin. It is characterized by amorphism, universality and inclusion in all diverse relationships between subjects. Contradictions at this stage exist potentially. They are contained in different and even contradictory values, norms, needs, knowledge, etc. There is a starting point around which the conflict can further develop; this is a common interest, new connections, relationships, common space, etc. Therefore, any person is a potential enemy in a future conflict.

Second phase– maturation. From numerous connections and relationships, the subject begins to choose those that he considers acceptable or unacceptable. It can be anything: work, sex, behavior, money, power, the process of cognition, etc. A subject (group) is specifically identified as the bearer of one or another attractive or repulsive trait, and certain information begins to concentrate around it. There is a search for people who sympathize with a specific group or person. The second stage is characterized by:

Selecting a specific opponent;

Accumulation of certain negative information about the subject;

Clearly identifying the area of ​​the conflict situation;

Concentration of groups of supporters and opponents;

Strengthening and awareness of psychological tension between oppositions.

Third stage– incident. Often there is some calm and waiting before him. The positions of “provocateur”, “victim”, “judge”, “bazaar woman”, and fighter for justice are highlighted.” No matter how cautious the opposition behaves, there will be a reason for an incident. It can be anything: said in the wrong tone, looked at the wrong way, didn’t warn or, on the contrary, shouted, made a remark - this is just a “clue”. The incident itself is a “small pebble” that can cause a collapse, bringing into play the full power of the elements. Its fixation does not allow us to see the main contradictions and the subject of the conflict between the subjects, but it is the starting point for a collision. The participants in the situation are ripe for open confrontation, and a clash begins, i.e. conflict.

Fourth stage– collision (conflict). It can be compared to an explosion, as a result of which both “waste” and “valuable” rock are thrown to the surface. Direct collision manifests itself on several levels: emotional - psychological, physical, political, physical, political, economic, etc.

Demands, claims, accusations, emotions, stress, scandals cause struggle, opposition and confrontation. The ability to determine a “valuable breed” from an “empty one” depends on which path the conflict takes: rational or irrational. This stage is characterized by:

Vivid confrontations;

By highlighting the subject of the conflict, realized by the subjects;

determining the scale and boundaries of the conflict;

The emergence of third parties (observers, support groups, etc.);

Determining the scale and boundaries of the conflict situation;

Presentation of means of control and manipulation of subjects in conflict;

The emergence of factors confirming the need for a collision.

The conflict becomes an event for others, they see it, talk about it, and develop a certain attitude towards it.

Fifth stage– development of the conflict. When we talk about development, we mean a change in some elements and characteristics that are present in the situation, as well as factors that have one or another influence on the conflict. At this stage there are factors that do not develop or change, i.e. static, constant: subject of conflict; social factors; core values; strategic goals.

Elements that partially change: connections and relationships between subjects (groups); interpretation of facts; interests; needs; tactical tasks; ideas about conflict, subject relations. Elements that can be replaced by others: semantic context; positions, roles; means of struggle; social norms, principles of interaction; reactions; feelings; emotions. This is where the conflict develops. The actions of the conflicting parties are determined by these elements.

Sixth stage– post-conflict situation, consequences of the conflict. From the point of view of identifying the stages of the conflict, it should be noted that often the conflicting parties begin to realize the situation from the third and fourth stages, when the conflict has matured and many processes have gotten out of control. In other words, the subjects are already within the conflict and act in accordance with its logic of struggle and confrontation, destruction and suppression.

Based on identifying the stages of development of a conflict situation and identifying specific characteristics, it is possible;

Formulate objectives for targeted intervention in conflicts in different stages;

Apply patterns in management practice and in the educational process;

Apply the scheme to diagnose a conflict situation;

Professionally manage a conflict situation by changing the main characteristics and elements;

Professionally “embrace the conflict” in order to manage the situation from the inside, etc.;

Thus, by methodically “splitting” the conflict and determining the location of the conflict, we build a certain structure that allows us to get closer to the richness of the content and recognize the subtlest nuances of this social phenomenon.

No action aimed at preventing or effectively resolving conflicts can be taken if we know nothing about the causes of their occurrence and the characteristics of their development. Therefore, in this lesson the main focus will be on these issues. You will learn about what groups of causes of conflicts exist and how they differ from each other, as well as what the main stages and stages of their development are and what their dynamics are.

Causes of conflicts

In total, there are four main groups into which the causes of conflicts are divided:

• Objective reasons
• Organizational and managerial reasons
• Social and psychological reasons
• Personal reasons

Let's talk about each group separately.

Objective causes of conflicts

Objective causes of conflicts are the reasons that determine the formation of a pre-conflict situation. In some cases they may be real, and in others they may be imaginary, representing only a reason artificially invented by a person.

The most common objective reasons include the following:

The collision of spiritual and material interests of people that occurs in the process of life in a natural rhythm.

EXAMPLE: Two people are arguing in a store about who will get the product they like, which remains in a single copy.

Insufficiently developed legal norms that regulate conflict resolution problems.

EXAMPLE: A manager often insults his subordinate. The subordinate, defending his dignity, is forced to resort to conflict behavior. In our time, no effective methods have yet been developed to protect the interests of subordinates from the arbitrariness of managers. The subordinate, of course, can file a complaint with the appropriate authorities, but most likely this will not yield results. Hence it turns out that in such situations, subordinates have to either make concessions or enter into conflict.

Insufficient amount of spiritual and material goods necessary for normal life and activity.

EXAMPLE: Nowadays in society one can observe all sorts of shortages of various goods, which certainly affects both the lives of people and the characteristics of conflicts between them. Several people can apply for the same promising and well-paid position. This contributes to the emergence of conflicts between people, and the objective cause of the conflict here will be the distribution of material resources.

Organizational and managerial causes of conflicts

Organizational and managerial reasons are the second group of causes of conflicts. To some extent, these reasons can be called more subjective than objective. Organizational and managerial reasons are interconnected with processes such as the creation of various organizations, groups, teams, as well as with their functioning.

The main organizational and managerial reasons are:

Structural and organizational reasons- their meaning is that the structure of the organization does not meet the requirements that the activity in which it is engaged puts forward to it. The structure of the organization should be determined by the tasks that it solves or plans to solve, in other words, the structure must be adapted to them. But the catch is that bringing the structure to meet the tasks is very problematic, which is where conflicts arise.

EXAMPLE: When designing the organization, as well as in forecasting its tasks, mistakes were made; During the course of an organization's activities, the tasks facing it constantly change.

Functional and organizational reasons- as a rule, they are caused by a lack of optimality in the connections between the organization and the external environment, various divisions of the organization or individual employees.

EXAMPLE: Conflicts may arise due to a discrepancy between the rights of an employee and his responsibilities; discrepancy between wages and the quality and quantity of work done; discrepancy between logistics and the volume and features of the tasks assigned.

Personal-functional reasons- are caused by insufficient compliance of the employee, based on the professional, moral and other qualities required by the position he occupies.

EXAMPLE: If an employee does not have the qualities required by the organization, conflicting relationships may arise between him and senior management, colleagues, etc., because the mistakes he makes can affect the interests of everyone with whom he interacts.

Situational and managerial reasons- are a consequence of mistakes made by managers and their subordinates in the process of tasks assigned to them (managerial, organizational, etc.).

EXAMPLE: If an incorrect management decision is made, a conflict may arise between its executors and authors; Similar situations arise when an employee does not complete the task assigned to him or does it improperly.

Social and psychological causes of conflicts

The socio-psychological causes of conflicts are based on the socio-psychological prerequisites inherent in interpersonal relationships. They are also divided into several types:

Unfavorable socio-psychological climate- an environment in which there is no value-orientation unity and a low level of cohesion among people.

EXAMPLE: In an organization or any group of people, a negative atmosphere, depression, negative attitudes of people towards each other, pessimism, aggression, antipathy, etc. prevail.

Anomie of social norms- this is a mismatch of social norms accepted in an organization or society. It can give rise to double standards - situations when one person demands from others what he himself does not follow.

EXAMPLE: In an organization there is a person who can get away with everything, and another is required to perform unimaginable tasks and bear responsibility for every action.

Discrepancy between social expectations and the implementation of social roles and fulfillment of functionality- appears due to the fact that one person may already have formed expectations, and another person may not even be aware of it.

EXAMPLE: The manager expects the subordinate to perform his duties in a specific way, but has not brought him up to date. The subordinate performs the work as it should happen in his understanding. As a result, the manager’s expectations are not met, which is what causes the conflict.

Generation Conflict- usually associated with different behaviors of people and differences in their life experiences.

EXAMPLE: An elderly person believes that young people should behave in a certain way, corresponding to the idea that is fixed in his mind. Young people, in turn, behave in a way that is right from their point of view. Conflict may arise as a result of this discrepancy.

Communication barriers- in other words, misunderstanding between people, which can arise either unconsciously, due to the inability to communicate effectively and concentration only on one’s own interests, or deliberately, in order to complicate the communication process for a partner.

EXAMPLE: threats, teachings, commands, orders, accusations, humiliation, moralizing, logical argumentation, criticism, disagreement, interrogation, clarification, distraction, deliberate diversion from the problem and everything that can disrupt another person’s train of thought and force him to prove his position.

Territoriality- refers to the field of environmental psychology. Territoriality means the occupation by one person or group of people of a specific space and taking it and everything that is in it under their control.

EXAMPLE: A group of young people comes to the park and wants to take a bench where people are already sitting. They demand to give up their place, which can cause a conflict, because others may not give up their place. Another example would be the introduction of troops into the territory of a country in order to occupy certain positions there, subjugate it to one’s control, and establish one’s own rules.

The presence of a destructive leader in an informal structure- if there is a destructive leader in an informal organization, he, intending to achieve personal goals, can organize a group of people who will obey his instructions, and not the instructions of the formal leader.

EXAMPLE: You can recall the movie “Lord of the Flies” - according to the plot, the following situation occurred: a group of boys who found themselves on a desert island chose one of the guys as a specific leader. At first, everyone listened to him and followed his orders. However, later one of the guys felt that the leader was behaving ineffectively. Subsequently, he becomes an informal leader and lures the boys to his side, as a result of which the boy, who was the formal leader, loses all authority and power.

Difficulties in socio-psychological adaptation of new team members- arise in many cases when a new person joins an organization, company or any other group of people. In such situations, the stability of the team is disrupted, which makes it susceptible to negative influences both from within and from the outside.

EXAMPLE: A new person comes to the established team of the organization’s department, with his own characteristics and qualities. People begin to take a closer look, adapt, check each other, arrange all kinds of “tests”. In the process of such interaction, conflict situations of various kinds may arise.

Responsive aggression- is characteristic mainly of weak and defenseless people. It manifests itself in the fact that a person’s indignation is directed not at its source, but at the people around him: relatives, friends, colleagues, etc.

EXAMPLE: A young man works as a manager in a company. But due to his character and personality traits, everyone makes fun of him, “teasing” him, sometimes not in a very friendly way. But he cannot answer anyone, because... weak by nature. His indignation is sublimated into aggression, which he takes out when he comes home on his relatives - he shouts at them, swears at them, starts quarrels, etc.

Psychological incompatibility- a situation when people are incompatible with each other according to some psychological criteria: character, temperament, etc.

EXAMPLE: Family quarrels and scandals, divorces, domestic violence, negative atmosphere in the team, etc.

Personal causes of conflicts

The personal causes of conflicts are closely related to the characteristics of the people involved. As a rule, they are determined by the specifics of the processes occurring in the human psyche during his interaction with the outside world and people around him.

The types of reasons presented include the following:

A person's assessment of another's behavior unacceptable- the nature of each person’s behavior depends on his personal and psychological characteristics, as well as his mental state, attitude towards another person or situation. A person’s behavior and communication can be regarded by a partner either as acceptable and desirable, or as unacceptable and undesirable.

EXAMPLE: Two people met in a new company. One of them is used to communicating in a purely rude manner, which the rest of the company members already treat normally, while for the other such behavior is unacceptable, as a result of which he expresses his indignation about this. People enter into confrontation and a conflict situation arises.

Low level of socio-psychological competence- manifests itself in situations where a person is not prepared for effective action in conflict situations or has no idea that many conflict-free methods can be used to get out of a pre-conflict situation.

EXAMPLE: A fierce argument arises between two men on some sensitive topic. But while one of them can give arguments in his favor and resolve the dispute verbally and without aggression, the other is used to resolving all issues with his fists. As soon as the situation begins to heat up, one resorts to physical contact - a conflict situation arises, although before that it could be characterized as pre-conflict and a lot of ways could be applied to it to get around the “sharp corners”.

Lack of psychological stability- makes itself felt when a person is not capable of being exposed to stress factors during social interaction.

EXAMPLE: The cause of the conflict here can even be a banal “crush” in the morning in transport - one person accidentally steps on another’s foot, the second in response begins to be indignant and insult the first.

EXAMPLE: The spouses did not come to a compromise at the family council, as a result of which the situation worsened and a scandal began; At a meeting or during a disciplinary conversation, employees did not come to a consensus and the situation worsened - a “debriefing” began, a showdown, a showdown, personal attacks, etc. As a result, a conflict begins.

Open period

The open period of conflict is the conflict interaction itself, or, more simply, the conflict itself. It consists of the following steps:

Incident. It represents the very first clash of subjects, during which there is an attempt to use their personal powers in order to resolve the situation to their advantage. If the resources of one of the subjects are sufficient to ensure an advantage in its favor, the conflict can be exhausted. However, conflicts often develop further due to a series of incidents. Moreover, conflict interactions between subjects can contribute to changing the initial structure of the conflict, modifying it, and adding new incentives for taking new actions.

EXAMPLE: During a quarrel, people begin to use methods of fighting that are suitable for them: putting pressure on each other, interrupting, shouting down, blaming intensely. If one of the opponents managed to suppress the other, the quarrel may end. But one quarrel can escalate into another, becoming a serious scandal with all the ensuing consequences.

Escalation. The escalation process can be characterized as a transition from negotiations to active confrontation. In turn, the struggle will cause new, more violent emotions, which contribute to an increase in errors and distortion of perception, which ultimately leads to an even more intense struggle, etc.

EXAMPLE: During a disciplinary conversation, the conversation between colleagues escalated into a heated argument, then people began to get personal, insult each other, and humiliate each other. Emotions began to take over, clouding the opponents' judgment. After leaving the office, one may begin to publicly accuse the other, the other may begin to win others over to his side, weave intrigues, build intrigues, etc.

Balanced opposition. This stage is characterized by the fact that the interaction between the subjects of the conflict continues, but its intensity is gradually declining. The participants realize that continuing the confrontation using force does not produce a corresponding effect, however, the parties’ actions to achieve a compromise solution or agreement have not yet been observed.

EXAMPLE: Participants in a family scandal or a serious conflict at work begin to understand that the actions they take to achieve an advantage in their favor do not bring results, i.e. their efforts are in vain; active aggressive actions are being taken less and less. The parties are gradually realizing that it is time to come to an agreement and establish normal relations, but none of them is yet willing to do so openly.

Ending the conflict. Meaning this stage lies in the fact that the subjects of the conflict move from conflict resistance to the search for a more adequate resolution of the situation in order to end the conflict on any terms. The main forms of ending conflict relationships can be called their elimination, extinction, settlement, resolution or escalation into a new conflict.

EXAMPLE: The conflicting parties come to an understanding: the relationship between the spouses improves and becomes less aggressive, because both were able to meet each other halfway and understand opposing positions; Colleagues found a common language, figured out what didn’t suit whom, and resolved their dispute. But this may not always happen - if the end of the conflict is its escalation into a new conflict, then the consequences can be very disappointing.

Post-conflict (latent) period

The post-conflict period, like the pre-conflict period, is hidden and consists of two stages:

Partial normalization of relations between subjects. It occurs in cases where the negative emotions present in the conflict have not completely disappeared. The presented stage is characterized by people’s experiences and their understanding of their position. Often there is a correction of self-esteem, attitude towards the opponent, and the level of one’s aspirations. The feeling of guilt for actions taken during the conflict may also worsen, but the negative attitudes of the subjects towards each other do not provide them with the opportunity to immediately begin the process of normalizing relations.

EXAMPLE: The spouses between whom there was a conflict are aware of their guilt, understand that they were wrong, but in each of them there is still resentment, indignation and other negative emotions that do not allow them to ask each other for forgiveness, forget about the scandal, or return to the previous one. rhythm of life.

Complete normalization of relations. Relations can finally normalize only when all parties to the conflict come to the realization that it is most important to find a way for constructive further interaction. This stage is different in that during communication people overcome their negative attitudes, achieve mutual trust and take an active part in any joint activity.

EXAMPLE: Colleagues at work made concessions to each other, overcame their pride, and to some extent reconsidered their attitude to the situation, to their behavior, and to the behavior of their opponent. It is likely that they will together carry out some task given by the leader, or even themselves will come to the conclusion that joint activity can unite them and improve their relationship.

In addition to the periods of conflict dynamics presented above, we can also highlight another period characterized by differentiation of parties. This means that the conflict is developing progressively, as a result of which the opposition of the participants is intensifying. The confrontation between the parties continues until the moment when any further strengthening ceases to make sense. This will be the moment when the integration of the conflict begins - the desire of the participants to come to an agreement that suits each of them.

EXAMPLE: You may have seen the feature film Angel Falls starring Liam Neeson and Pierce Brosnan. The two heroes oppose each other throughout the entire picture, they are irreconcilable enemies, their goal is to kill each other. But the situation at the end of the film develops in such a way that this goal loses all relevance for each of the characters, and, even having the opportunity to achieve it, they find another way out of the situation. As a result, the heroes not only do not kill each other, but also become like-minded people with one common mission.

Let's summarize the lesson: knowledge of the causes and stages of development of conflicts is a necessary condition to master the skill of preventing and neutralizing them, because, as they say, the best way to avoid a fire is to extinguish its barely smoldering hearth than to extinguish an already raging flame. The ability to come out of any conflict with dignity comes down mainly to being able to find compromises and make concessions.

In the next lessons of our training, we will talk about ways and methods of managing, resolving and resolving conflicts, their prevention and prevention, and also touch on the topic of intrapersonal conflict in more detail.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.

The emergence of a mismatch of interests;

Discussion of mismatch of interests;

Finding a solution

The conflict does not go beyond the conflict situation. Easily resolved, partners are focused on cooperation.

Attitude – we are partners

The motto of the activity is: together we will solve everything

Logic is constructive. Based on the position “I’m smart - you’re smart.”

Ignoring:

Smoothing

Ignoring;

Evasion.

The conflict is getting worse. A constructive decision is replaced by a neutral one - the actors try not to notice each other.

Attitude - we are outsiders

The motto of the activity is - it’s better not to interfere with each other

Logic is neutral. Based on the position “I understand - you don’t understand.”

3.Destructive:

Warning strikes;

Painful blows;

Striking blows.

The conflict turns into war. The relationship is hostile. The conflict is difficult to resolve, it becomes self-sufficient and continues until complete victory (“destruction” or “surrender” of the enemy), even when points of disagreement disappear

Attitude - we are enemies

The motto of the activity is “I’ll show you”

Logic is destructive. Based on the position “I am good - you are bad.”

CONFLICT DYNAMICS:

Stages of the conflict (essential points characterizing the development of the conflict from its occurrence to resolution)

Phases of the conflict (reflect the dynamics of the conflict from the point of view of the real possibilities of its resolution

The relationship between the phases and stages of the conflict

Conflict phase	Conflict stage	allowed. conflict
Initial phase	The emergence and development of a conflict situation (created by one or several entities, is a prerequisite); awareness of a conflict situation (external manifestation: emotional experiences of the person aware: changes in mood, statements, limiting contact...)
Rising phase	The beginning of open conflict interaction
Peak of the conflict	Development of open conflict (causing damage to the enemy by the initiator and retaliatory actions against him)
Decline phase	Conflict resolution (pedagogical means: conversation, persuasion, request, explanation; administrative means: transfer to another job. Dismissal, manager’s order, court decision...)

Classification of conflicts

Typology:

Depends on the choice of criterion:

	Basics classification	Types of conflicts	General characteristics
	Areas of manifestation conflict resolution	Economic Ideological Social and household Family and household	Economic contradictions are at the core There are conflicting views at the core The contradictions in the social sphere are at the core Contradictions in family relationships are at the core
	Degree of activity and tension	Stormy fast flowing Acute long-term Weak and sluggish Weak and fast flowing	They arise on the basis of the individual psychological characteristics of the individual and are distinguished by the aggressiveness and extreme hostility of those in conflict. They arise when there are deep contradictions. Associated with not very acute contradictions, or the passivity of one of the parties. Associated with superficial reasons, are episodic in nature
	Subjects of conflict interaction	Intrapersonal Interpersonal "Personality-group" Intergroup	Associated with a clash of opposing personality motives. Subjects – two personalities Subjects – individual and microgroup Subjects – small social groups
	Social consequences	Constructive Destructive	They are based on objective contradictions that contribute to the development of the social system. Based on subjective reasons, they create social tension and lead to the destruction of the social system
	Subject of the conflict	Realistic Unrealistic	Have a clear subject They do not have the subject or the existing subject is not vital for one or both subjects of the conflict
	Form of manifestation	Open; Latent; Potential
	Solvability	Fully resolvable; Partially permitted; Unauthorized (can only be regulated)

Business and emotional.

Types of social conflict.

Subpersonality-subpersonality (intrapersonal, intrapersonal) - the mentality of “I” is multi-layered in its structure, consisting of different subpersonalities. Mentality includes complex system internalized social roles, positions, statuses.

personality-personality (interpersonal, interpersonal) – collisions caused by contradictory modes of behavior and attitudes of people in the conditions of joint achievement of any goal. These are not conflicts between sovereign subjects, but only their incremental modification. E Fromm (Anatomy of human destructiveness) – a significant part of conflicts is of a sadomasochistic nature.

Microgroup - microgroup (Intragroup, intragroup) - are determined by the presence in social groups of two structures of relationships: role (official, business) and interpersonal (objectification of human communication)

Group - group (intergroup, interstate, interethnic, class)

According to the form of the flow of k., in the relationship between reality and its ideal pictures among the participants of k.v. M. Deutsch highlights:

Genuine situation (the situation exists, the parties correctly assess themselves, each other and the situation)

Random or conditional (not realized by the parties)

Displaced k. (behind the explicit k. there is another one underlying the explicit one)

Misattributed to. (misunderstood parties. Misinterpreted problems)

Latent c. (should have happened, but did not happen. Because it is not realized by the parties, the c.s. exists, the behavioral c. does not)

False k. (There are no objective grounds, but it occurs due to errors of perception and understanding)

INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT

Subpersonality-subpersonality (intrapersonal, intrapersonal) - the mentality of “I” is multi-layered in its structure, consisting of different subpersonalities. Mentality includes a complex system of internalized social roles, positions, and statuses.

a person is conflictual by nature;

two basic instincts: Eros (sexual instinct, life and self-preservation) and Thanatos (instinct of death, aggression, destruction and destruction);

intrapersonal conflict - the eternal struggle between Eros and Thanatos;

conscious and unconscious desires often have opposite contents;

unresolved vn. Conf. Leads to neurosis;

a significant cause of neurosis is the conflict between sexual desires and moral-volitional restrictions;

concept of libido - the energy of sexual desire

Harris T.A. identifies four births for each person: cellular, physical, psychological and social. These periods are characterized by their own problems and achievements. In the first years of life, every person develops a fixed emotional attitude or basic life position. It is she who determines the basic attitude towards herself and others. There are four life attitudes: 1) it’s not good for me - it’s good for you; 2) it’s not good for me - it’s not good for you; 3) it’s good for me - it’s not good for you; 4) it’s safe for me - it’s safe for you. The author believes that the first installation is the first preliminary decision based on the experiences of the first year of life. By the end of the second year, it is confirmed, consolidated, or replaced by the installation of the second and third. Having made the final decision, the child remains with the attitude he has chosen, and it manages all his affairs until he changes it to the fourth “The decision - to adhere to the first three attitudes - is based generally on the presence or absence of stroking and approval.”

Defense mechanisms are various types of operations characteristic of psychological defense. Psychological protection is a set of actions aimed at reducing or eliminating any change that threatens the integrity and stability of the biopsychological individual. Protection is also considered as a set of unconscious mental processes that ensure the protection of the psyche and personality from dangerous negative and destructive actions of intrapsychic and external impulses 111]. Defense mechanisms are ways in which the ego protects itself from internal and external stress. To survive, you need to suppress or sublimate your instincts. Freud identifies a number of defense mechanisms used by people in conflict situations:

crowding out- the process of removing from awareness thoughts and feelings that cause suffering. This is the main and most common defense mechanism.

Projection- the process by which an individual attributes his own unacceptable thoughts, feelings and behavior to other people or the environment.

Substitution - a defense mechanism in which the manifestation of an instinctive impulse is redirected from a more threatening object or person to a less threatening one.

Rationalization- a method of defense in which reality is distorted to maintain positive self-esteem.

Reactive education - a defense mechanism that suppresses an unacceptable impulse, then at the level of consciousness a completely opposite one appears.

Regression- return to childhood patterns of behavior, safer and more enjoyable.

Sublimation - a protective mechanism that facilitates the transformation of an impulse in a socially acceptable form. A constructive strategy for curbing unwanted impulses.

Denial - a defense mechanism in which a person refuses to acknowledge something unpleasant to him.

In contrast to the theory of Z. Freud and its fundamental factor - sexuality, A. Adler defines other reasons for the development and formation of a person. His observations showed that people with severe organic weakness or defect try to compensate for them through training and exercise. A. Adler was convinced that the desire for superiority is innate; on the other hand, he considered the manifestations of neurosis as a self-defense mechanism - a defensive strategy of the “I”. The symptom serves as a means of “apology”, “alibi”, and a means of protecting the prestige of the individual. Often these are people who were overprotected or rejected as children. They could also endure physical suffering. In such cases, children become increasingly anxious and do not feel safe. They begin to develop a psychological defense strategy.

According to A. Adler, a child potentially has three motivational tendencies:

Feelings of inferiority;

The desire for compensation through power;

Social sense of community.

Inferiority is not a pathology, it is a normal, natural feeling for a person. Age is the main and universal source of inferiority. A child depends on adults in almost everything, is forced to obey them, seek help, attention, care and love.

The conditions for normal, healthy compensation for feelings of inferiority are:

The desire for superiority, power, giving a reserve of perseverance and energy to achieve vital goals;

Developed social interest, i.e. the ability to take a direct interest in the affairs and lives of other people and take part in them;

Awareness of the three most important problems in life - professional, communication and love-marital, as well as the ability to satisfactorily resolve these problems.

Neurosis - inadequate compensation for an inferiority complex (pseudo-compensation):

The child chooses his ultimate goal (fixed idea) - to become strong and omnipotent, like the adults he encounters (parents, teachers, other significant adults);

The means to achieve this goal and reduce the distance between the strong and the weak are stubbornness, aggression or timidity, humility;

Fixation on an infantile pattern of behavior that was once successful.

Fromm identified the following methods of psychological defense:

escape mechanisms:

Destructiveness - overcoming feelings of inferiority by conquering or humiliating others.

submission to social norms.

According to E. Fromm, in contrast to the listed mechanisms of escape from freedom, due to which individuality is lost, there is the experience of positive freedom.

A. Maslow considered the needs for organization, stability, law and order, predictability of events and freedom from disease, fear and chaos as self-protective needs. These needs reflect an interest in long-term survival. As moments that are especially harmful to the well-being of a child, A. Maslow identifies: parental quarrels, physical abuse, separation, divorce, death. Adults fulfill the need for security by looking for a job with a stable high income, creating savings accounts, purchasing insurance, etc. To some extent, a system of religious or philosophical beliefs also helps to feel safe. A. Maslow suggested that certain types of neurotic adults are primarily motivated by a search for security.

K. Horney, developing the ideas of psychoanalysis and individual psychology, offers his own model of personality development. The basis of her understanding between healthy development, in which the individual realizes his potential, and neurotic development, was the concept of the real Self.

The Real Self is not a fixed structure, but a set of inherent human potentials, such as temperament, abilities, inclinations, which are part of our heredity and require favorable conditions for development.

In childhood, a person requires certain conditions so that his self-realization can take place: the opportunity to express his thoughts and feelings, satisfaction of various needs, a healthy collision of his desires and the will of others. If the child develops basal anxiety caused by pathogenic living conditions in the family, a feeling of helplessness in the face of a hostile world, then normal, full development is disrupted. In this case, the following protective strategies are developed:

movement towards people (conciliation and humility),

movement against people (aggression and capture)

withdrawal from people (alienation).

A healthy person is able to show flexibility and choose the direction of his movement depending on the circumstances, but in a person with neurotic development, one of the directions. The remaining two are repressed into the unconscious, appearing in a disguised form. Feelings of helplessness, hostility, and isolation that manifest themselves in basal anxiety are the basis for defensive strategies and act in opposite directions. That's why a person is torn apart internal unresolved conflicts. To feel his integrity and security, a person chooses one of the directions. The goal of any strategy is to suppress hostile feelings towards parents in order to survive. K. Horney described ten such strategies, called neurotic needs:

Excessive demand	manifestations in behavior
1. In love	An insatiable desire to be loved and admired by others
2. In the managing partner	Excessive dependence on others and fear of rejection. Fear of loneliness. Revaluation of love.
3. Within clear limits	The desire for order and restrictions. Submission to others. Content with little.
4. In power	Dominance and control over others as an end in itself
5. Exploiting others	Fear of being used by others or looking stupid. Reluctance to do something in your favor.
6.In public recognition	Desire to be admired by others
7. Admiring yourself	The desire to embellish your image. Need for flattery.
8. In ambition	Striving to be the best. Fear of failure.
9. In self-sufficiency and independence	Avoiding relationships that involve commitment. Distancing.
10. In perfection and infallibility	Trying to be morally infallible and blameless in everything. Maintaining excellence and virtue.

Horney K. has broken down these needs into three main categories, each of which represents a strategy for optimizing interpersonal relationships in order to achieve a sense of security. Each strategy is accompanied by a basic orientation in relationships with other people.

The choice is determined by the environment and temperament characteristics.

1. People Oriented: Compliant Type: demonstrates the need for love and approval and a special need for a “partner” who must fulfill all his expectations and take full responsibility. These needs have characteristics common to all neurotic tendencies: they are obsessive, unselective, and produce anxiety or depression when frustrated. This type is characterized by: a pervasive feeling of self-pity, subordination to others, complete dependence on others. Various aggressive tendencies are repressed. They are characterized by dependence, indecision, and helplessness. Basic principle: “If I give in, they won’t touch me.” They strive to avoid feelings of loneliness, helplessness and uselessness. Aggression can be hidden.

2. Orientation against people: Aggressive (hostile) type: goals, character traits and values ​​are directly opposite to all of the above in the first type. They need success and dominance. The aggressive type can be divided into narcissistic, perfectionistic (striving for perfection) and vindictive. The narcissistic type has been accustomed to admiration since childhood, the admirer of perfection has grown up focusing on unreasonably high standards, the vengeful type has been abused and wants to take revenge. Dominance is characterized by hostility and exploitation of others. Basic principle: “I have power, no one can touch me.” They are of the opinion that life is a struggle against everyone. A situation or relationship is viewed from the perspective of “What will I get from this?” This tactic can be veiled by tact and friendliness in order to satisfy one's personal ambitions and prestige.

Orientation from people: Detached (isolated) type: a strong need for superiority over others, but realizes this need more in the imagination. The desire for freedom, solitude and peace, independence and self-sufficiency. To avoid dependence on the environment, he tries to subjugate internal impulses and be content with little. Suppresses or denies feelings and internal conflicts, thereby distancing oneself from others and from oneself. Basic principle: “I don’t care.” The attitude is not to let yourself be carried away. They lose true interest in people.

Mental defenses make a person’s behavior inflexible and inappropriate to the situation.

In Gestalt therapy, the following psychological defense mechanisms are distinguished:

- retroflexion - containment, turning inward what was meant to be outward. Manifestations: stiffness, tightness, feeling of internal discomfort;

- introjection- acceptance of any information without assimilation, which remains alien and interferes with life. Manifestations: “I must”, behavior without choice, quick answers (“yes” or “no”) without thinking, unawareness of one’s own needs;

- projection- boundaries are confused: one’s own boundary steps on the boundaries of other subjects, the unconscious in oneself is attributed to another. We can distinguish a mirror projection, when the subject finds in another characteristic features that are considered as his own (1 - I like it, I have it too, 2 - which he wants to have), a projection of catharsis, when something is attributed to another that the subject wants to get rid of or refuse (may or may not be aware of these rejected traits), additional projection, when traits are attributed to another that justify one’s own qualities (usually negative);

- merger- loss, blurred boundaries, symbiosis, often between close people, maybe with an idea, difficulty in highlighting one’s feelings and sensations;

- egotism - the opposite of merging, rigidity of one’s own boundaries, inability to merge, to connect, to make full contact, detachment, insensitivity, distance, no emotional reaction;

- deflexion- direction to the side, not towards the object or subject for which the action or impulse was intended;

- devalitization (devaluation) - devaluation of one's own experience, inability to assimilate;

A breakdown of the contact cycle can occur at any stage; chronic dissatisfaction of needs leads to neurosis. The goal of Gestalt therapy is actual living here and now, awareness of one’s feelings, sensations, desires, a person’s ability to make choices and take responsibility for it without blaming others.

Defense mechanisms help only situationally, temporarily reduce the level of anxiety, and alleviate the condition. Stable psychological defenses contribute to the development of rigidity, the inability to adequately perceive the situation and act accordingly.

CONFLICTS AND TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

The most famous and widely used is the scheme developed by E. Bern, which was based on the assumption that at any given moment a person can be in one of three ego states: “parent” (superego), “adult” (ego), “child” (id). According to the theory of transactional analysis, by the age of three years a child has already formed a sober personality: “parent”, “adult”, “child”, where “parent” is not only a generalized position, but also specific memories of the actions of parents (or substitute parents - grandmothers). , grandfathers, older brothers, sisters, teachers) in a given situation. “Adult” is a component of the personality that is able to work with information, plan, think and feel appropriately to a specific case. “Child” is the person himself, as he was in childhood in a similar situation. Some distinctive behavioral features that characterize a particular position are clearly visible in vocabulary, intonation, posture, etc.

Basic characteristics of the positions of Parent, Adult, Child.

	Parent (Rd)	Adult (B)	Child (Rb)
Characteristic words and expressions	Everyone knows that... You should never... You should always... I don’t understand how they allow this...	How? What? When? Where? Why? Maybe.… Probably...	I'm angry with you! That's great! Disgusting!
Intonation	Accusing, condescending, critical, suppressive.	Related to reality.	Very emotional.
State	Arrogant, over-correct, very decent.	Attentiveness, search for information.	Clumsy playful, depressed, oppressed.
Facial expression	Frowning, dissatisfied, unsatisfied	Open eyes maximum attention	Oppression, astonishment.
	Hands at sides, pointing finger, hands folded on chest.	Leaned forward to the interlocutor, turn your head- comes after	Spontaneous sub- visibility (clenches fists, walks, pulls button).

In transactional analysis, there are three types of transactions (interactions in communication, which are understood as the interaction of certain positions): additional, intersecting and hidden. Any of the communication partners can currently occupy one of three possible positions, that is, be a “child”, “adult” or “parent”, and his words and actions emanating from this position can be directed towards one of three states partner.

In the case of additional transactions, partners adequately perceive each other’s positions and direct their actions exactly in the direction that is expected by the partner and which he himself adheres to. There are two subtypes of additional transactions: equal and unequal.

Conflict

E. Kirshbaum believes that conflict resolution depends on how objectively the situation is defined. If the conflict is perceived as a basis for resolving any contradiction, then it is possible to search for constructive behavior aimed at resolving the conflict. If the conflict is assessed as a threat to personal well-being, then the person tries to relieve tension using the type of psychological defense. E. Kirshbaum identifies six types of behavior of teachers in a conflict situation:

1. “Repressive measures” (RM) is a method of action in which teachers try to change the aggressive behavior of students by applying repressive measures.

2. “Ignoring the conflict” (IC) - the teacher’s reaction to the conflict, in which the teacher continues to teach the lesson as if nothing had happened.

3. “Role influence” (RI) - the behavior of the teacher, in which attempts to positively resolve the conflict within the framework of role interaction appear.

4. “Incentive for one’s own change” (SI) - a method of action in a conflict situation when the teacher changes his own behavior towards the student.

5. “Elucidation of motives” (VM)

6. “Reflection” (R) - a type of behavior of teachers in which the main attention is paid to the rational resolution of the conflict; it is close in its content to the type of behavior “clarification of motives”.

Research by E.I. Kirshbaum showed that unsuccessful teachers most often use a defensive mechanism for resolving conflict situations, resorting to aggressive forms of behavior that, as a rule, exceed the boundaries of pedagogical expediency. Teachers who prefer an authoritarian communication style deny their own guilt, shift conflict resolution to others, resort to rationalization of their unseemly behavior or project their own shortcomings onto students. (*Kirshbaum E.I. Psychologist-pedagogical analysis of conflict situations in the pedagogical process: PhD thesis in psychology. Leningrad, 1986.)

To describe types of behavior in conflict situations, K. Thomas considers a two-dimensional model of conflict regulation to be applicable, the fundamental ones of which are cooperation, associated with a person’s attention to the interests of other people involved in the situation, and assertiveness, which is characterized by an emphasis on one’s own interests.

Competition, competition - the desire to achieve one's interests to the detriment of others.

Accommodation is sacrificing one's own interests for the sake of another.

Compromise is an agreement based on mutual concessions, the proposal of an option that resolves the contradiction that has arisen.

Avoidance - lack of desire for cooperation and lack of tendency to achieve one's own goals.

Cooperation - participants in the situation come to an alternative that fully satisfies the interests of both parties.

You can evaluate your own leading strategy of behavior in a conflict situation using the K. Thomas test, which identifies five strategies: competition, compromise, avoidance, compliance. Rivalry and avoidance, as a rule, lead to increased conflict; cooperation and compromise are the most acceptable in teaching activities.

TYPES OF CONFLICT PERSONALITIES

Conflict personality type	Behavioral characteristics
Demonstrative	Wants to be the center of attention, Likes to look good in the eyes of others. His attitude towards people is determined by how they treat him. He finds it easy to deal with superficial conflicts and admires his suffering and resilience. Adapts well to different situations. Rational behavior is poorly expressed. There is emotional behavior. Planning of one’s activities is carried out situationally and poorly implemented. Avoids painstaking, systematic work. Does not shy away from conflicts, feels good in situations of conflict interaction.
Rigid	Suspicious. Has high self-esteem. Constantly requires confirmation of one's own importance. Often does not take into account changes in situation and circumstances. Straightforward and inflexible. With great difficulty he accepts the point of view of others and does not really take their opinions into account. He takes respect from others for granted. Expressions of hostility on the part of others are perceived as an insult. Little critical of his actions. Painfully touchy, hypersensitive to imaginary or real injustices.
Ungovernable	Impulsive, lacks self-control. The behavior of such a person is difficult to predict. Behaves defiantly and aggressively. Often in the heat of the moment, he does not pay attention to generally accepted norms of communication. Characterized by a high level of aspiration. Not self-critical. He tends to blame others for many failures and troubles. Cannot competently plan his activities or consistently implement plans. The ability to correlate one’s actions with goals and circumstances is not sufficiently developed. Learns few lessons from past experiences (even bitter ones)
Ultra-precise	He is meticulous about his work. Places higher demands on himself. He makes high demands on others, and does it in such a way that the people with whom he works seem to find fault with him. Has increased anxiety. Overly sensitive to details. Tends to attach undue importance to the comments of others. Sometimes he suddenly breaks off relations with friends and acquaintances because it seems to him that he was offended. He suffers from himself, experiences his own miscalculations, failures, and sometimes even pays for them with illnesses (insomnia, headaches...). Restrained in external, especially emotional, manifestations. Doesn't feel very good about real relationships in the group.
"Conflict-free"	Unstable in assessments and opinions. Has easy suggestibility. Internally contradictory. There is some inconsistency in behavior. Focuses on immediate success in the situation. Doesn't see the future well enough. Depends on the opinions of others. Excessively strives for compromise. Doesn't have enough willpower. Does not think deeply about the consequences of his actions and the reasons for the actions of others.
	According to Litvak: a helpless person, Blue beard, cold woman, caring mother, busy sufferer, eternal prince, Cinderella and the princess and the pea, old woman at the broken trough, sweet-sounding siren, fox and Judas, liar

METHODS OF WORKING WITH CONFLICTS

Observing the interaction of teachers in different conditions and with different people allowed us to draw the following conclusions:

The process of deformation of pedagogical communication begins with a distortion of its perceptual side, which predetermines the subsequent choice of inadequate communicative means, this, in turn, leads to unsuccessful interaction and conflicts, both internal and external.

General deformations in perception (in various manifestations) can be correlated with the influence of psychological defenses on them as follows:

a) increased stereotyping, rigidity of attitudes is associated with the presence of stable introjects, laid down from childhood, little subject to change, which were accepted without assimilation, and, remaining imposed by significant people, control a person’s perception. This ability for introjection continues into adulthood.

b) strengthening of projection is another consequence of the defense mechanism (projection), which allows the subject to rid himself of the recognition of socially condemned, unacceptable needs, thoughts, desires, qualities and attribute them to other people. Depending on how much a person accepts himself and his undesirable (in his opinion) traits, the other person is perceived (more or less hostile).

c) bodily tension, muscle tension - another consequence of the presence of an internal “controller”, which does not allow a person to freely and spontaneously express his emotions, satisfy needs, measuring them with the needs of the environment.

3. Deformations in the communicative side of communication, inherent in all three groups, can also be associated with the action of psychological intrapersonal defenses:

a) the establishment of communication barriers through external psychological defenses is caused by a violation of perception. Perceiving a person as posing some kind of threat to himself or his self-esteem, the subject of perception begins to build external defenses, which are expressed at the verbal and non-verbal levels (increased aggressiveness, ingratiation, ignoring, etc.).

b) incongruent transmission of information is expressed in a discrepancy between the verbal and nonverbal levels, which is caused by the internal perception and assessment of another person (or oneself) and the verbal expression of this perception, which do not coincide with each other.

c) evaluative feedback is also due to impaired perception (in particular, projection). Such feedback provokes the other person to use their defense mechanisms, as a result - conflict.

4. Analysis of differences in violations of the communication structure of these groups suggests the following:

a) in the first group (Protecting oneself from others), teachers oppose themselves and their opinion (as the only true one) to other people by reducing reflection, identification, empathy and searching for the cause of conflicts outside. In appearance there is a clearly visible desire to dominate, not to allow “hostile” others to approach oneself, and the rigid boundaries of one’s space serve as additional protection (even if the danger is imaginary). For this group of teachers, the self-assessment of the type of interaction (compromise and cooperation) sharply diverges from the objective state of affairs (rivalry, which is confirmed by observation results, expert assessments, authoritarian style of communication, leadership). This discrepancy is presumably caused by the desire to look better in the eyes of others. The action of psychological defenses does not allow them to realize and really evaluate what is happening. The most conflict group, the highest percentage of disorientation.

b) in the second group (Protecting oneself from oneself), teachers try to meet professional requirements and social norms, while suppressing their (socially disapproved) desires, emotions, and needs. Constant restraint of oneself is expressed in tense, closed postures, in rare but strong manifestations of emotions, in unstable rhythm and pitch of the voice. Feedback is expressed indirectly, indirectly, with a predominance of negative assessments. They seem to hide hostile manifestations both from others and from themselves. Such incongruity leads to misunderstandings, conflicts and mutual disappointment. Type of interaction in conflict - withdrawal (coincides with self-esteem). The style of communication and leadership is dominated by liberal with elements of authoritarian.

c) in the third group (Protecting others from themselves), teachers, by strengthening reflection, identification, and empathy, try to find the cause of the conflict in themselves. The feeling of guilt for what is happening does not allow them to objectively approach the situation and find a way out without infringing on their own interests. Appearance - an ingratiating smile, a desire for physical reduction in height, a quiet, uncertain voice - confirms the choice of the approach “from below”. The type of interaction in a conflict is adaptation (according to self-assessment - cooperation, compromise, adaptation), which can be explained by a reluctance to admit the infringement of one’s own interests). The leadership style is liberal, with elements of authoritarian. The choice of such a style of communication and interaction does not allow one to show firmness and determination where the situation requires it; behavior depends not on external conditions, but on internal attitudes and compliance with the image of the ideal Self.

The differences in the violations of the communication structure of these groups make it possible to determine ways of correction. Knowing what exactly is deformed, you can select individual means and methods of correction.

The similarity in deformities indicates the possibility of conducting group classes using universal correction methods.

The influence of psychological defenses is expressed, first of all, in deformations of the perceptual side of communication, which leads to the use of inadequate communication means and, as a result, conflict interaction. The feeling of dissatisfaction with the results of interaction accumulates. Joining the ideal self or the despised self becomes an unconscious need that allows one to compensate or justify one’s failure in communication.

The diagram of deformed pedagogical communication is presented in Fig. 4.

Perceptual side of communication:

Perception through external signs

First impression Increased stereotyping

(perception of form) (checking with existing stereotypes)

Reflection through effects:

mean error, halo, order, projection

Selection of communication means:

Communicative. Communicative. Transmission Reverse

barriers influence information communication

protection ingratiating evaluative

Interactive side of communication:

Type of interaction Forms of interaction

competition regardless of others

avoidance

device

Result

Unsuccessful interaction, unfinished action.

. Transactional analysis in psychological counseling

This direction was developed by E. Bern and his followers J. Jongward, J. Stewart, and others. From the point of view of transactional analysis in psychology, from the age of three, a person is considered to be a person. The personality structure is represented through ego states, the conventional names of which are “Parent” - superego (P), “Adult” (B), “Child (child) - id-ego (D).

R is the thoughts, feelings and actions of people - parents. This is the cultural experience of a race, religion, nation, clan, surname, family: rites, traditions, rituals, norms and rules of behavior in society, the requirement to comply with these norms; This is a personal experience of mistakes and successes.

B are thoughts, feelings and actions that are carried out by a person according to the “here and now” principle. This state is responsible for exchanging information, planning, expanding the range of searching for ways to achieve goals, it makes choices, makes decisions and bears responsibility.

D - thoughts, feelings, actions of a person in his childhood. Here, emotional intensity (sometimes inadequate), strong desire and desire to satisfy needs are possible.

Upon more detailed and careful consideration, the “Critical” and “Nurturing Parents” (CR and VR), “Adaptive” and “Free Child” (AD and SD) are distinguished.

CR is a state in which the presence of norms and rules is important. It demands their fulfillment, punishes, coerces, gives evaluations.

VR - attaches great importance to personality. Its effects are adequate to the situation. It helps the individual, sometimes it condones or even reaches the point of “babying”.

AD - is forced to adapt to the demands of people close to him in order to gain recognition, approval, love, stroking. The most common experiences are feelings of guilt, annoyance, resentment, and pity.

SD - guided by one's own needs and desires.

Each ego state is represented externally through behavioral responses in different ways.

Behavioral diagnostics of ego states presented in table 7:

Table 7

Behavioral diagnostics of ego states

Verbal reactions:

CR cannot, should, must, must, demand, bad, unbearable, disgusting, value judgments like: “How could he,” “How dare she.” Questions “why” with intonations, under which there are already ready-made answers – condemnations.

VR is necessary, necessary, possible, try, try, try, you will succeed, good girl (boy), smart, I will help you. Questions “why” with approving intonations.

B Questions starting with the words: what, how, to whom, why, when, how much, how, etc. (questions “why” don’t make sense.

I don’t know, I won’t do it anymore, I don’t know how, I don’t remember, sorry, sorry, why me? It's good for you, but for me...

SD Slang, jargon, emotionally charged phrases like: Well, a specific thing; I promise one hundred percent; she's so stuffy; waste; They allow you to load information with emotions.

Facial expressions:

Pose, body position:

Gestures:

Intonations:

Attitude towards yourself and others

A person's behavioral reactions will depend on which ego state is represented in him to a greater extent. The severity of a particular ego state is due to the fact that, due to physical or mental trauma received as a result of interaction, a reduction of one ego state and hypertrophy of another may occur. Mental trauma in childhood leads to a reduction of the “Child”, while the “Parent” or “Adult” is hypertrophied. Often in adolescence there is a reduction in the “Parent” and an increase in the “Free Child”, which leads to delinquency. Replacing children's activity with the activity of an adult can lead to a reduction in the “Adult” child. His “Parent” knows what is and is not possible, and his “Child” allows

educate himself, is capricious and happy. In addition to reduction, it is possible excluded states: the absence of any ego state leads to the need for symbiosis with a partner

In symbiosis with another childhood ego state, you don’t have to experience joy or sadness (a person cannot do this), it’s enough to see a smile or tears from your partner. Typically, such results are caused by attitudes such as “Please others.” Symbiosis usually occurs without agreement; the “disabled” person unconsciously exploits the ego state of the other. Exploitative relationships fail, interactions break down, relationships end. Pathological conditions include contamination And blurred boundaries.

In terms of interaction, transactional analysis considers additional, complementary and parallel transactions as constructive communication simply because the stimulus and response, carried out from the same ego state, lead to understanding (in the “Adult” ego state) or to compliance with expectations ( in “Parent” and “Child”) and to the mutual satisfaction of the partners. When intersecting, redefining (tendental and blocking) transactions occur, interaction is interrupted and a conflict situation is created. The optimal variant of interaction is carried out on the basis of the desires of the “Free Child” and the abilities of the “Adult” to analyze the place, time, choice of people and means to achieve goals and satisfy their needs. Interaction with hidden transactions is considered as games that end in retribution. Typically the games start with the Critical Parent and the Adaptive Child. The goal of the game is to get negative experiences. To play the game, you need at least two participants, a playing field (triangle), three roles (victim, savior and pursuer). Sometimes the psychologist and the client begin to play games (the client is the victim, the psychologist is the savior, the Victim: “... but you didn’t help me!” turns into the role of the persecutor). If we consider games from the point of view of life positions (I and You are good; I and You are bad; I am good, You are bad and I am bad, and You are good), then they play in order to justify their own position of “badness” " Games allow you to avoid the unknown, uncertainty, loneliness, provide stroking, allow you to anticipate the reactions of other people, and justify one or another position in life. Games involve manifestations of insincere feelings. “Play, but don’t ignore the possibility of change.” Games are a mechanism for confirming the implementation and functioning of the scenario.

A script is an unconscious life plan, supported by parents, justified by the situation (the course of events) and reaching maximum strength when choosing an independent path. The script begins with children's decisions that arise from messages (verbal and non-verbal, direct and indirect) from adults from their child ego state: a typical and very powerful message " Don't be yourself"- parents use other people's children as examples; “Don’t be a boy (girl): the result is gender-role confusion; the a priori impossible message “Don’t be!” (so that the devils take you away, so that you fail); “Don't be close” - parents never talk about love. The child wants love, but gets used to the fact that love must be earned, but there is no need to talk about it; "Do not belong"; “Don’t stay small (be big)” and vice versa “Stay small” - a child is easy to manipulate, control, small ones are more pleasant, only a small one can follow an adult’s command like “Stop, come here, why are you spinning around”; “Don’t feel” - the child is scared, but in response: “There is nothing to be afraid of,” the child cries, but hears: “You can’t cry, boys don’t cry,” and no one thought about why Nature gave the boy tear ducts (probably wrong! ); “Don’t think” - it’s too early to think about it; “Don’t do it” - the child washed the dishes, and in response: “I’m tired of picking up the fragments!”, or “And this is called you washed it!”

Hence, the real life path consists of 1) a scenario component, 2) heredity, 3) an external random event and 4) a decision independent of the scenario. The child connects his parents’ messages through drivers with his decisions and brings them to behavioral acts. Examples of drivers: “Be perfect” (If you win, then...). Perfectionist adults grow up, they are easily predictable, easy to manipulate; “Be strong” (If you are strong, then you can get everything in life. Don’t show your feelings, don’t cry, don’t scream, don’t swear, don’t be happy); “Please others” (Do everything for others, only then will you earn respect and recognition). Such people ignore themselves; “Hurry” (If you don’t go to college, you’ll go to the army, you’ll lose two years of your life. You have to be on time (instead of: arriving at the exact appointed time); “Try" (Replacement do on try, try, try.). E. Bern reduces all types of scenarios to three: “Winner” - easily and freely achieves his goals; knows what will happen if he fails, he has several options for the path (there were no negative messages); “Defeated” is a person who does not achieve his goals, or achieves them at a detriment to himself; focused only on success, does not know what to do in case of failure, he has no choice; “Unwinner - undefeated” (banal scenario) - does not set big goals, but does not experience strong emotions as a result of achievement.

Based on one or another scenario, driver and message, a person forms beliefs in accordance with which he lives. Seeking help from a psychologist is due to the fact that some beliefs and prohibitions begin to interfere with establishing contacts with the outside world, a feeling of dissatisfaction with oneself and others appears and accumulates, and intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts arise. It is necessary to give permission to please yourself, express your feelings, accept your uniqueness, etc. In fact, everything that caused pain can be ignored, forgotten or repressed into the subconscious. Hence the main tasks: 1) overcome ignoring yourself, your feelings, remember your desires; 2) expand consciousness: teach to make choices, make decisions, bear responsibility; 3) strengthen your “I”. Psychoanalysis sets itself similar tasks.

3.1.7. Existential-humanistic approach in psychological counseling.

This direction was developed by Carl Rogers, Frederic Perls, and Viktor Frankl. One can say about Rogers that he is an attentive and listening therapist. Perls - "influencing". Frankl brings attention and influence skills to her work based on the client's needs. All three approaches provide a lot of useful practical psychotherapy.

At the center of the theory is a person whose destiny is to live and act, determining his own destiny. According to Rogers, “The psychologist...only helps the individual help himself. The psychologist is needed to enable the person to vent his emotions associated with the problem, as a result of which the person will think more clearly and constructively. The psychologist must create an atmosphere in which the client approaches insight "Based on this insight, he is able to accept vital problems more adequately, independently and more responsibly."

The basis of existential-humanistic psychology is the constant desire to understand and feel the uniqueness of each client. An important point of Rogerian therapy is the contradiction between the real and ideal “I”. A person wants to see himself as good and often loses the real idea of ​​himself in attempts to present himself as ideal. This discrepancy between dream and reality, between self-perception and the perception of others, leads to incongruity. Incongruity manifests those positions where a person is no longer himself. It leads to anxiety, to behavior that does not satisfy either him or those around him. The psychologist’s task is to help the client realize his incongruity and work with it.

3.1.7.1. Gestalt therapy: a set of effective microtechniques.

Fritz Perls developed Gestalt therapy to fill the theoretical gaps of psychoanalysis. According to his views, a personality consists of many parts, and this makes it unique. We begin our lives more or less “united,” but as we grow and develop, we experience unpleasant feelings and fears that lead to the loss of certain parts of our personality. This "splitting" must be prevented if we are to accept real life. Thus, Gestalt therapy is closely related to the integration or reintegration of our split parts into a whole personality.

According to this concept, people are responsible for their actions in the world, but the world is so complex that very little can be understood in the moment, let alone the past or future. Gestalt therapy focuses on the client's current, present-day experiences. The similarity of key constructions with the main positions of existentialism is obvious. In a complex and multivariate world, according to existential views, one can act in different ways. Perls places emphasis on the “here and now,” on momentary experience, which is designed to harmonize a person, connect him with other people and with the world as a whole. Less attention is paid to the past and future. Perls writes: “As soon as you leave the solid foundation of the present and your attention turns to the future, you are overcome by anxiety and restlessness.”

It is interesting to compare Perls and Rogers. Rogersian psychology uses methods of attention and listening, and Perls mainly uses methods of influence: directive, feedback and interpretation. If for Rogers everything is built on empathy and a positive attitude, then Perls behaves somewhat aloof during the session, his respect for others is shown only when he becomes himself. And although both are looking for a sincere relationship, Rogers patiently waits for this, and Perls can demand and achieve the development of a trusting relationship.

Both Rogerian and Gestalt therapy are, however, within the framework of existential humanism. Both therapies appeal to individuality, although Rogers pays more attention to relationships with others, while Perls affirms a person's responsibility for his own destiny. Despite the similarity of goals, the methods differ. There are no studies that compare the effectiveness of these approaches.

Some techniques of Gestalt therapy.:

1. Perception of the “here and now”. Gestalt therapy methods help the client perceive the world Now, not in the past and not in the future. What is done is done, what will be will be. Although previous experiences, dreams, and thoughts about the future are also discussed, the emphasis is on their connection with momentary, immediate sensations and experiences.

2. Directiveness. The Gestalt therapist constantly tells clients what to do. Throughout the session, the psychologist guides the client’s actions. Additional power to directives is given by: feedback, questions related to feelings, interpretations.

3. Speech changes. Gestalt therapy tends to change questions into statements ("Do you like me?" may actually mean "I'm not sure if you like me"). The therapist gets the client to replace questions with “I statements.” The client is often asked to replace vague statements about an object with “I statements,” thereby strengthening personal identification and specificity. The client is asked to speak in the present tense (“Everything is happening here and now”), which makes it easier to focus on the problem.

The Gestalt therapist speaks only about what he sees in front of him. That is why “how” and “what” questions are preferable to “why” questions, which guide the conversation along an intellectual and philosophical path.

4. Empty chair method. Perhaps the most famous and powerful method of Gestalt therapy. The client is asked to talk with an imaginary subject of the conflict, supposedly sitting in an empty chair opposite. After the client’s remarks, the psychologist invites him to move to another chair and answer for his opponent. The psychologist directs the dialogue between the client and the imaginary opponent, inviting him to change the chair at the most critical moments of the conversation. With the help of this exercise, the client learns to feel and understand his feelings more fully and deeply. Often, the client realizes that he is projecting his thoughts onto another person.

5. Conversation with a part of your “I”. This is a variation of the “empty chair” method, which helps to notice incongruities in the client. Two sides of the problem or confrontation of parts of the personality are revealed. The dialogue involves two sides of the personality using an empty chair. Often during a dispute, two conflicting parties come to a new solution or answer. The psychologist notes incongruity: mixed messages in sign language, or discrepancies between verbal and nonverbal messages. Then a tense right hand and a relaxed left hand enter into a conversation, or maybe a conversation between a swaying leg and a sore stomach. Often such dialogues provide a quick breakthrough in understanding the problem.

6. "Top Dog and Bottom Dog." The Gestalt therapist is always looking for an authoritarian, demanding “top dog” who says words like “must”, “must”. On the contrary, the “bottom dog” is more passive, with a feeling of guilt, it is always looking for forgiveness. The dialogue between them helps the client better understand himself (Note that the work option is reminiscent of the interaction between the Critical Parent and the Adaptive Child in Transactional Analysis.)

7. Fixed feeling. When key emotions are revealed during the interview (often through nonverbal movements), the psychologist immediately draws attention to the feeling and its meaning.

8. Working with dreams. Here Gestalt therapy is very similar to psychoanalysis. Dreams are not used to understand past conflicts, but to interpret the current situation. Dreams are part of the client. Any element of a dream - a person, an object, a scene - is a projection of the client’s experiences, and working on the interpretation of dreams makes it possible to combine disparate parts into a single personality.

Working with contradictory feelings and thoughts, incongruences and ambivalent manifestations. The method is applicable to both interpersonal and internal conflicts. An experienced psychologist guides the client towards the desired solution. Such exercises also stimulate self-awareness. They are especially useful in cases of emotional incongruity and occupy a significant place in the methodology of Gestelt therapy. (Perls resorts to directives only in relation to the interview itself, but in life - “decide for yourself”).

What is common in the views of Rogers and Perls is that they consider each individual to be valuable in itself, and believe that each person must choose his own path in life. Perhaps, an intermediate position between the views of Rogers and Gestal therapy is occupied by the school of Viktor Frankl and his follower Elisabeth Lucas, who also adhere to existential views. Their approach balances listening and influencing skills.

3.1.7.2 Logotherapy by Viktor Frankl.

According to Frankl's theory, what is important for a person is not what happened, what is much more important is his attitude towards what happened. Logotherapy deals with the search for meaning in human life. The goal of logotherapy is to help the client find meaning and purpose in life. From the point of view of the methods used, logotherapy is a balance between the listening methods of Rogerian therapy and the methods of influence of Perls. The theory and methods developed by Frankl are becoming increasingly popular. It is interesting to note that the three central techniques developed by him are: switching, paradoxical intentions and changing relationships - widely used in research. Attitude shift and switching techniques can be found in varying forms in cognitive behavioral therapy and rational emotive therapy. The method of paradoxical intentions is considered one of the new methods, although it was used by Frankl back in 1929.

E. Lucas (1984) noted four main techniques that the therapist can use to enable the client to grow personally so that his life is full of meaning.

1. Change of attitude. The client has a negative attitude towards himself and a pessimistic outlook on life. In fact, a person can be very attractive to others, but not like himself. He may have many problems, but he cannot do anything. In both cases, the logotherapist's task is to change the way the client thinks about the situation. The cognitive approach sets similar goals. Attitude modification is achieved in a fairly direct way - by sharing your opinion, arguing with the client. It's all about getting the client to accept a new point of view. Finding the positive is a form of logotherapy.

2. Paradoxical intentions. Frankl had a client with a phobia about heart attacks. Psychoanalysis and other methods did not help. Frankl suggested that the client is not afraid of falling from a heart attack on the street, but intentionally wants to fall, i.e. wishes heart attack. Frankl defines the technique of paradoxical intentions as "pushing the client to do something that he is afraid of." The patient recovered the following week. He said: "I was just following your advice. I was trying to get heart attack, but the more I tried, the less it worked, and the fear disappeared." This is how this technique appeared. But Frankl warned that one should not confuse the concept of paradoxical intention and the so-called symptom prescription. With the paradoxical intention technique, the client must wish for what he afraid. In other words, we are not dealing with fear itself, but with the object of fear.

3.Switching, as one of Dr. Frankl's methods, "allows us to forget ourselves and reorganize our attention so that our thoughts are occupied with other, more positive aspects" (Lucas, 1984). Many of us get caught up in our problems, negative experiences and feelings. The purpose of switching (direflection) is to refocus our attention. Simply put, the therapist's job is to help the client think about something, not about the problem. The switching technique is very simple: in one case, the psychologist instills in a client who has lost a limb thoughts about the possibility of a new career, in another he helps a cancer patient start helping others, and not think exclusively about himself, in the third he recommends that a retired person find an interesting hobby . In each case, the facts and circumstances do not change, and it is difficult to take a fresh look at the problem of illness, age and loneliness. But you can find something beyond this that could attract the client’s attention. This refocusing of attention changes the very “semantic core” of a person’s life. As a result, instead of depression, a person can set new goals for himself, a hopelessly ill person begins to think about others, and an old man can make new friends thanks to a new hobby.

Switching may be especially useful in the treatment of sexual disorders. Cases of impotence are often caused by the fact that a man attaches too much importance to whether or not he can perform sexual intercourse. Such excessive attention results in deepening impotence. In this case, logotherapy recommends switching and thinking about the woman, about the sexual stimuli that come from her. Thinking about another person, he can no longer think about himself, and his natural functions begin to work normally.

4. Method of persuasion. Lucas notes that the techniques described above require that the client be listened to in the process, find out his worldview, and then try to find out the objective meaning of the situation. The psychologist believes that the situation in which the client finds himself is not at all hopeless, and he directly wants to ensure that the client realizes this. The client, for example, is asked to loudly express a phrase like: “I am not so hopeless, I can control my actions and direct my destiny.”

Viktor Frankl and his student Elisabeth Lucas, no less than Carl Rogers, pay attention to listening and understanding the client's world.

Perhaps Rogers's main contribution was his desire for empathy, warmth, respect, specificity. The methodological value of this theory is that it teaches you to listen carefully to the client and be open during the interview. This is the only way we can grow, the only way we will understand our potential to enrich the lives of others.

The work of Fritz Perls has given us a number of effective techniques that can be used not only in Gestalt therapy, but also in conjunction with other theories.

Viktor Frankl's theory, with his balanced methods of listening and influencing, is central to the existential-humanist tradition. In Elisabeth Lucas, his student, we find a useful discussion of Frankl's work. This approach talks about the problems of the human soul, which can be overcome through the actions of the individual and with the help of a psychologist. All of these theories are aimed at finding the positive in human experience and developing mutual understanding of the individual and his environment.

mixed conflict - a conflict that arose on a false basis, when the true cause of the conflict is hidden

an incorrectly attributed conflict is a conflict in which the true culprit, the subject of the conflict, is behind the scenes of the confrontation, and the conflict involves participants who are not related to the conflict.

If the mental state of the parties and the behavior of people in conflict situations corresponding to this state are taken as the basis for the classification, then conflicts are divided into rational and emotional. Depending on the goals of the conflict and its consequences, conflicts are divided into positive and negative, constructive and destructive.

Main stages of conflict development

Typically, in a social conflict there are four stages of development: pre-conflict, the conflict itself (the stage of conflict development), the stage of conflict resolution, the post-conflict stage:

Pre-conflict stage

A conflict is preceded by a pre-conflict situation. This is an increase in tension between potential subjects of conflict caused by certain contradictions. Only those contradictions that are perceived by potential subjects of conflict as incompatible opposites of interests, goals, values, etc., lead to an aggravation of social tension and conflicts.

Social tension is also not always a harbinger of conflict. This is a complex social phenomenon, the causes of which can be very different. Here are some of the most typical reasons causing the growth of social tension:

a) real “infringement” of people’s interests, needs and values;

b) inadequate perception of changes occurring in society or individual social communities;

c) incorrect or distorted information about certain (real or imaginary) facts, events, etc.3

Social tension is essentially a psychological state of people and, before the start of a conflict, is of a latent (hidden) nature. The most characteristic manifestation of social tension during this period is group emotions.

One of the key concepts in social conflict is also “dissatisfaction”. The accumulation of dissatisfaction with the existing state of affairs and the course of developments leads to increased social tension.

The pre-conflict stage can be divided into three phases of development, which are characterized by the following features in the relationship between the parties:

The emergence of contradictions regarding a certain controversial object; growing mistrust and social tension; presentation of unilateral or mutual claims, reduction of contacts and accumulation of grievances;

The desire to prove the legitimacy of one’s claims and accusing the enemy of unwillingness to resolve controversial issues using “fair” methods; being locked into one's own stereotypes; the emergence of prejudice and hostility in the emotional sphere;

Destruction of interaction structures; transition from mutual accusations to threats; increase in aggressiveness; formation of the image of the “enemy” and the attitude to fight.

Thus, the conflict situation is gradually transformed into an open conflict. But the conflict situation itself can exist for a long period of time and not develop into a conflict. For a conflict to become real, an incident is necessary.

Incident- this is a formal reason for the start of a direct clash between the parties. An incident can happen by accident, or it can be provoked by the subject(s) of the conflict. The incident may also result from the natural course of events. It happens that an incident is prepared and provoked by some “third force”, pursuing its own interests in a supposed “foreign” conflict.

The incident marks the transition of the conflict to a new quality. In the current situation, there are three main options for behavior of the conflicting parties:

The parties (sides) strive to resolve the contradictions that have arisen and find a compromise;

One of the parties pretends that “nothing special happened” (avoiding the conflict);

The incident becomes a signal for the start of open confrontation.

The choice of one option or another largely depends on the conflicting attitude (goals, expectations) of the parties.

Stage of development of the conflict

The beginning of open confrontation between the parties is the result of conflict behavior, which is understood as actions aimed at the opposing party with the aim of capturing, holding a disputed object or forcing the opponent to abandon his goals or change them. There are several forms of conflict behavior:

a) active conflict behavior (challenge);

b) passive-conflict behavior (response to a challenge);

c) conflict-compromise behavior;

d) compromising behavior.

Depending on the conflict setting and the form of conflict behavior of the parties, the conflict acquires its own logic of development. A developing conflict tends to create additional reasons for its deepening and expansion.

Three main phases in the development of the conflict can be distinguished:

1. Transition of the conflict from a latent state into open confrontation between the parties. The fight is still being carried out with limited resources and is local in nature. The first test of strength occurs. At this phase, there are still real opportunities to stop the open struggle and resolve the conflict by other methods.

2. Further escalation of confrontation. To achieve their goals and block the enemy’s actions, more and more new resources of the parties are introduced. Almost all opportunities to find a compromise are missed. The conflict is becoming increasingly unmanageable and unpredictable.

3. The conflict reaches its climax and takes the form of a total war using all possible forces and means. At this phase, the conflicting parties seem to forget the true causes and goals of the conflict. The main goal of the confrontation is to inflict maximum damage on the enemy.

Conflict resolution stage

The duration and intensity of the conflict depend on many factors: on the goals and attitudes of the parties, on the resources at their disposal, on the means and methods of fighting, on the reaction to the conflict environment, from symbols of victory and defeat, from available and possible ways (mechanisms) of finding consensus, etc.

At a certain stage in the development of the conflict, the conflicting parties’ ideas about their capabilities and the capabilities of the enemy may change significantly. There comes a moment of “reassessment of values”, caused by new relationships that have arisen as a result of the conflict, a new balance of power, the awareness of the impossibility of achieving goals or the exorbitant price of success. All this stimulates a change in tactics and strategies of conflict behavior. In this situation, one or both conflicting parties begin to look for ways out of the conflict and the intensity of the struggle, as a rule, subsides. From this moment the process of ending the conflict actually begins, which does not exclude new aggravations.

At the conflict resolution stage, the following scenarios are possible:

1) the obvious superiority of one of the parties allows it to impose its conditions for ending the conflict on the weaker opponent;

2) the fight continues until one of the parties is completely defeated;

3) lack of resources, the struggle becomes protracted and sluggish;

4) having exhausted resources and not identifying a clear (potential) winner, the parties make mutual concessions in the conflict;

5) the conflict can also be stopped under pressure from a third force.

The social conflict will continue until obvious, clear conditions for its termination appear. In a conflict, such conditions can be determined before the start of the confrontation (for example, as in a game where there are rules for its completion), or they can be developed and mutually agreed upon during the development of the conflict. But there may be additional problems in completing it. There are also absolute conflicts, in which the struggle is waged until the complete destruction of one or both rivals.

There are many ways to end a conflict. Basically, they are aimed at changing the conflict situation itself, either by influencing the parties to the conflict, or by changing the characteristics of the object of the conflict, or by other means.

The final stage of the conflict resolution stage involves negotiations and legal formalization of available agreements. In interpersonal and intergroup conflicts, the results of negotiations can take the form of oral agreements and mutual obligations of the parties. Usually one of the conditions for starting the negotiation process is a temporary truce. But options are possible when, at the stage of preliminary agreements, the parties not only do not stop “fighting”, but escalate the conflict, trying to strengthen their positions in the negotiations. Negotiations involve a mutual search for compromise by the conflicting parties and include the following possible procedures:

Recognizing the existence of a conflict;

Approval of procedural rules and regulations;

Identification of the main controversial issues (drawing out a protocol of disagreements);

Research possible solutions to problems;

Search for agreements on each controversial issue and conflict resolution in general;

Documentation of all agreements reached;

Fulfillment of all accepted mutual obligations.

Negotiations may differ from each other both in the level of the contracting parties and in the differences existing between them. But the basic procedures (elements) of negotiations remain unchanged.

Post-conflict stage

5. The concept of conflict, its essence and structure.

6. Positive functions of conflict.

7. Negative functions of conflict.

8. Typology of conflict.

9. Causes of conflict: objective, subjective.

10. Characteristics of the stages (stages) of conflict development.

11. Structural model of conflict.

12. Structure of the conflict. Objective and psychological components of the conflict.

13. Structure of the conflict. Object, subject of conflict.

14.Structure of the conflict. Direct and indirect participants in the conflict.

15. Dynamics of conflict. Cyclic conflict.

16. Dynamics of conflict. Latent stage.

17. Dynamics of conflict. Incident.

18. Dynamics of conflict. Causes and forms of conflict escalation.

19. Dynamics of conflict. Post-conflict period.

20. False conflict.

21. Conflict strategies: avoidance, avoidance of conflict.

22. Conflict strategies: confrontation, forceful solution.

23. Conflict strategies: cooperation.

24. Conflict strategies: concessions, adaptation.

25. Conflict strategies: compromise.

27.Ways to end the conflict with the intervention of third parties.

28.Compromise and consensus as ways to resolve conflicts.

29. Theories of conflict mechanisms.

30. Conflicts and transactional analysis.

31. Personal behavior strategies in conflict. Two-dimensional Thomas-Killman model of strategy behavior in conflict.

32.Types of conflicting personalities.

33. The concept of conflictogens, typology of conflictogens.

34. Functions of a third party in a conflict. The main tasks of the intermediary.

35. Different types of intermediaries.

1.Political conflict: concept and features.

2. Classification of political conflicts.

3. Causes of political conflicts.

4. Dynamics of political conflicts.

5. Features of political conflict. (see 1 question)

6. Functions of political conflict.

7. Political provocation as a method of political confrontation.

8. Political crisis. Types of political crises.

9. Military methods of resolving political conflicts and their consequences.

10.Ways to resolve political conflict.

11. Political consensus in the system of state-public relations.

12. Methods of resolving political conflict.

13. “Color revolution” as a method of political struggle.

14. Legal (legal) conflict: concept and features.

15. Structure of legal conflict. Subject, object, boundaries.

16. Stages of legal (legal) conflict.

17. Typology of legal conflicts.

18.Types of conflicts in the regulatory legal field.

19. False legal conflict.

20. Features of conflict resolution in the area of ​​separation of powers.

21. Arbitration process and civil proceedings as a way to resolve conflicts of interest.

22. Conflicts resolved by the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation.

23. Conflicts in parliamentary practice and ways to resolve them.

24. Features of judicial conflict resolution.

25. The role of the state in resolving legal conflicts.

26. Labor conflict: concept and features.

27. The main causes of labor conflict.

28. Stages of a labor conflict.

29. Principles of consideration of labor disputes.

30. Ways to resolve labor conflict.

31. Forms of resolving labor conflicts.

32.Organizational and managerial conflict: concept and features.

33. The role of the leader in conflict management.

34. Conflicts between different structures of the organization. Causes of conflicts in the “manager-subordinate” link.

35. Ethnic conflict: concept and features.

10. Characteristics of the stages (stages) of conflict development.

Typically, there are four stages of development in social conflict:

1. Pre-conflict stage - this is an increase in tension between potential subjects of conflict caused by certain contradictions. But contradictions do not always develop into conflict. Only those contradictions that are perceived by potential subjects of conflict as incompatible lead to an aggravation of social tension.

Social tension is also not always a harbinger of conflict. This is a complex social phenomenon, the causes of which can be very different. Causes, causing an increase in social tension: 1. Real infringement of the interests, needs and values ​​of people.

2. Inadequate perception of changes occurring in society or individual social communities.

3. Incorrect or distorted information about certain (real or imaginary) facts, events, etc.

Social tension, in essence, is the psychological state of people and, before the outbreak of a conflict, is of a latent (hidden) nature. The most characteristic manifestation of social tension during this period is group emotions. A certain level of social tension in an optimally functioning society is a natural protective and adaptive reaction of the social organism. However, exceeding the optimal level of social tension can lead to conflicts.

Three phases of the pre-conflict stage:

The emergence of contradictions regarding a certain controversial object; growing mistrust and social tension; presentation of unilateral or mutual claims; reduction of contacts and accumulation of grievances.

The desire to prove the legitimacy of one’s claims and accusing the enemy of unwillingness to resolve controversial issues using “fair” methods; being locked into one's own stereotypes; the emergence of prejudice and hostility in the emotional sphere.

Destruction of interaction structures; transition from mutual accusations to threats; increase in aggressiveness; formation of an “enemy image” and a commitment to fight.

Thus, the conflict situation is gradually transformed into an open conflict. But in itself it can exist for a long time and not develop into a conflict. For a conflict to become real, an incident is necessary.

Incident - a formal reason, an occasion for the start of a direct clash between the parties. An incident can happen by accident, or it can be provoked by the subject (subjects) of the conflict, or be the result of the natural course of events. It happens that an incident is prepared and provoked by some third force, pursuing its own interests in a supposed “foreign” conflict.

Three options for the behavior of conflicting parties when an incident occurs:

The parties (parties) strive to resolve the contradictions that have arisen and find a compromise.

One of the parties pretends that “nothing special happened” (avoiding the conflict).

The incident becomes a signal for the start of open confrontation. The choice of one option or another largely depends on the conflict attitude (goals, expectations, emotional orientation) of the parties.

2. Stage of development of the conflict - the beginning of open confrontation between the parties is the result of conflict behavior, which is understood as actions aimed at the opposing party with the aim of capturing, holding a disputed object or forcing the opponent to abandon his goals or change them. Forms of conflict behavior:

active conflict behavior (challenge);

passive-conflict behavior (response to a challenge);

conflict-compromise behavior;

compromising behavior.

Depending on the conflict setting and the form of behavior of the parties, the conflict acquires a logic of development. A developing conflict tends to create additional reasons for its deepening and expansion. Each new “victim” becomes an “justification” for escalating the conflict. Therefore, each conflict is unique to a certain extent. Three main phases:

The transition of a conflict from a latent state to open confrontation between the parties. The fight is still being carried out with limited resources and is local in nature. The first test of strength occurs. At this phase, there are still real opportunities to stop the open struggle and resolve the conflict by other methods.

Further escalation of confrontation. To achieve their goals and block the enemy’s actions, new resources of the parties are introduced. Almost all opportunities to find a compromise are missed. The conflict is becoming increasingly unmanageable and unpredictable.

The conflict reaches its climax and takes the form of a total war using all possible forces and means. At this phase, the conflicting parties seem to forget the true causes and goals of the conflict. The main goal of the confrontation is to inflict maximum damage on the enemy.

3. Conflict resolution stage . The duration and intensity of the conflict depend on the goals and attitudes of the parties, resources, means and methods of fighting, reactions to the environmental conflict, symbols of victory and defeat, available (and possible) ways (mechanisms) of finding consensus, etc.

At a certain stage in the development of the conflict, the opposing sides’ ideas about the capabilities of their own and the enemy may change significantly. There comes a moment of reassessment of values, due to new relationships, the balance of power, awareness of the real situation - the impossibility of achieving goals or the exorbitant price of success. From this moment the process of ending the conflict actually begins, which does not exclude new aggravations. Options for the development of events:

the obvious superiority of one of the parties allows it to impose its conditions for ending the conflict on the weaker opponent;

the fight goes on until one of the parties is completely defeated;

the struggle becomes protracted and sluggish due to lack of resources;

the parties make mutual concessions in the conflict, having exhausted resources and without identifying a clear (potential) winner;

the conflict can be stopped under pressure from a third force.

Ways to end the conflict:

Eliminating the object of conflict.

Replacing one object with another.

Elimination of one side of the conflict.

Change of position of one of the parties.

Changing the characteristics of the object and subject of the conflict.

Obtaining new information about an object or creating additional conditions.

Preventing direct or indirect interaction between participants.

The parties to the conflict come to a common decision or appeal to the arbitrator, subject to submission to any of his decisions.

Negotiation- the final stage of the conflict resolution stage involves negotiations and legal registration of the agreements reached. Negotiations involve a mutual search for a compromise between the conflicting parties and include possible procedures. Recognizing the presence of conflict.

4. Post-conflict stage . The end of direct confrontation between the parties does not always mean that the conflict is completely resolved.

The degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the parties with the concluded peace agreements will largely depend on the following provisions:

to what extent it was possible to achieve the pursued goal during the conflict and subsequent negotiations;

what methods and methods were used to fight;

How great are the losses of the parties (human, material, territorial, etc.);

how great is the degree of infringement on the self-esteem of one or another party;

whether, as a result of the conclusion of peace, it was possible to relieve the emotional tension of the parties;

what methods were used as the basis for the negotiation process;

to what extent it was possible to balance the interests of the parties;

whether the compromise was imposed by one of the parties or a third force, or was the result of a mutual search for a solution to the conflict;

what is the reaction of the surrounding social environment to the results of the conflict.

If the parties believe that the signed peace agreements infringe on their interests, then tensions will remain, and the end of the conflict may be perceived as a temporary respite. Peace concluded as a result of mutual depletion of resources is also not always able to resolve the main controversial issues.

The post-conflict stage marks a new objective reality: a new balance of power, new relationships of opponents to each other and to the surrounding social environment, a new vision of existing problems and a new assessment of their strengths and capabilities.

"