A few notes
The source data that was used in compiling these utilities was taken from
It should be remembered that the “classics” give some generalized, “academic” formulas for calculating the values of the spars and rigging of ships and vessels. Tabular data (sizes of spar trees) for specific historical ships, given in their own works, rarely coincide with the author’s formulas with accuracy “to the last sign”. (Which, of course, is understandable and in no way detracts from the value of these works).
On the other hand, it is well known that (despite all the “regulation” of, for example, military departments) the dimensions of the spar and the sailing rig of the ship could change from navigation to navigation. (Moreover, as an example, there is a well-known case when the screw clipper "Oprichnik" changed its sailing rig already during a long voyage).
In other words, if you, when building a model of a historical ship, use data from the sources below, then you can hardly say: “The sailing armament of this ship was exactly like this,” but you can say: “The sailing armament of this ship could well have been exactly like this.” like this."
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List of on-line calculators:
Nothing new. There are plenty of similar calculators on the Internet. This one is simply somewhat adapted to the needs of (ship) modellers and will help you convert the endless feet-inches of various countries into millimeters, and on the scale you need
On-line calculator for calculating the spar elements of sailing ships - masts, yardarms, topmasts, compiled on the basis of data presented in the works of K.Kh. Marquardt, R.C. Anderson, W. Mondfeld, D. Steele.
On-line calculator for calculating the spar elements of "small" sailing ships - schooners, brigs, tenders... Compiled on the basis of data from J. Fincham, presented in the work "A Treatise on Masting Ships...".
On-line calculator for calculating the spar elements of Russian sailing ships of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. Compiled on the basis of data presented in the work of A.V. Zenkov "The art of making masts, topmasts, yards and other mast things."
As a continuation of the previous calculator, it is also based on data from A.V. Zenkov and is intended for calculating the dimensions of spar trees of Russian military brigs, schooners, tenders of the late 18th - early 19th centuries.
On-line calculator for calculating the elements of standing and running rigging of sailing ships, compiled on the basis of data presented in the work of V. Mondfeld “Models of Historical Ships”.
On-line calculator for calculating the size of blocks used in the mid-19th century on Russian military sailing ships. Compiled on the basis of data presented in the “States...” of 1840.
In addition, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with:
An article by Yu. Miroshnikov in the form of modern spreadsheets will undoubtedly be of interest to ship model builders and naval history buffs
List of primary sources used in compiling calculators:
- K.H. Marquardt "Spars, rigging and sails of ships of the 18th century"
- W. Mondfeld "Models of historical ships" (W. Mondfeld "Historische Schiffsmodelle")
- D. Steel "The Elements and Practice of Rigging And Seamanship"
- R.C. Anderson "The Rigging of Ships in the days of the spritsail topmast, 1600-1720"
- R.C. Anderson "Seventeenth Century Rigging"
- J. Fincham "A Treatise on Masting Ships and Mast Making"
- AND I. Glotov "Explanation of accessories to the ship's armament"
- A.V. Zenkov "The art of making masts, topmasts, yards and other mast things"
- "Standard Regulations for the Present Armament of Ships, Frigates and Other Vessels Belonging to the Fleet" dated 01/18/1806
- "Regulations for supplies and materials supplied for current weapons to military sailing ships" dated 10/19/1840
Rigging is a set of gear (cables) of all types that securely fasten individual parts of the spar in place and serve for equipment and control. The rigging is divided into running and standing.
The design of the spar and rigging depends on the size and class of the ship, as well as on the purpose of the spar and rigging itself. With the development of navigation and shipbuilding, the purpose and role of the spar with rigging is constantly changing, which entails structural changes.
Masts are the main type of ship's mast. Large ships, as a rule, have two masts: a foremast (the forward one, that is, the first one from the bow) and a mainmast (the second mast from the bow); small - one foremast. Masts are used for raising visual signals, placing signal lights, radio and radar antennas, installing cargo booms, and on sailing ships for lifting, fastening and controlling sails. On warships, masts are also intended to accommodate control posts for the ship and its combat equipment.
Masts are installed in the center plane of the ship vertically or with a slight inclination towards the stern. Like the entire spar, masts have undergone great changes in their development. Structurally, masts are made single, tripod, four-legged, and also in the form of tower-like mast structures. In general, the mast consists of strong vertical beams that absorb all the forces from weight, wind pressure and inertia forces during pitching, and thin sheathing sheets. The mast set beams (legs) usually pass through the upper deck and are reinforced on the second deck.
Single mast (Fig. 1.26) - a steel pipe (or spar) watertight at the seams, installed on small ships, auxiliary and sailing vessels. Single masts are either solid or composite. The lower end of the mast (spurs) passes through the upper deck and is attached to the middle deck (platform); on sailing ships - to the keel. The top end of the mast is called the top. The lower end of the topmast, which is a continuation of the mast, is attached to the top of the mast, if it is composite. Depending on which mast it is installed on, the topmast is called a fore- or main-topmast, respectively. The topmast ends with a clot (klotik) - a wooden or metal disk, which has pulleys at the edges for signal halyards. Red and white lanterns are installed on the stall. The upper part of the mast with the topmast is held in the center plane of the ship using standing rigging.
Rice. 1.26. Single signal mast:
1,2 - topenants; 3 - klotik fire; 4 - antenna yard; 5 - topmast; 6 - signal yard; 7 - shrouds; 8 - signal halyards; 9 - steel pipe (or spar)
The tripod mast consists of three waterproof steel pipes. The upper ends are firmly fastened with a horizontal platform made of steel sheets, which is called a top. The legs of the mast pass through holes in the upper deck and are attached with their lower ends to the middle deck deck (ship platform). On platforms located along the entire length of the mast, there are: radio and radar antennas, range finders, searchlights, signal and navigation bridges and other control posts.
On modern ships, masts often have the shape shown in Fig. 1.27. The mast frame is externally covered with steel sheets. Such a mast has a large number of horizontal platforms on which radio and radar antennas are placed. To raise flags and signals, the mast has spreaders of different sizes that act as yards.
Rice. 1.27. Mast of a modern ship:
1 - spreaders; 2, 3 - sites and devices for placing radar antennas; 4 - steel sheathing sheets; 5 - radio antenna
Tower-like mast structures are a developed superstructure with platforms located in several tiers and representing enclosed spaces used for various combat and command posts.
R e and (slats) come in metal or wood of various sizes; attached to masts or topmasts in a horizontal position perpendicular to the centerline plane of the ship. They are intended primarily for raising signals. On them there are single-pulley blocks into which halyards are based from special braided non-twisting lines. The middle of the yard is called the top; the ends are at the right and left ends, respectively, to the sides of the ship. The legs of the yard are supported by yard-toppers, the ends of which are attached to the butts of the yoke on the mast or topmast. Masts are armed with two or even three yards. The lower yard on the foremast is called the foremast; on the mainmast there is a mainsail. The upper yards are respectively called fore-mars-yard, main-mars-yard.
The gaff is located on the mainmast, below the main yard, at an angle to the mast and is held in the center plane by Erens backstays, which are attached to the butt of the gaff and go to the sides. The lower part of the gaff is called the heel, the upper part is called the toe; the toe of the gaff is supported by a topenant. A pulley is embedded in the end of the gaff, through which a halyard passes for hoisting the Naval Ensign on a cruise or gaff lights at night.
Flagpole - a hollow metal or wooden rod installed at the stern of a ship and designed to raise the Naval flag when the ship is at anchor or at the wall. A clot is mounted on the upper end of the flagpole (top). The design of the flagpole allows it to be quickly dropped onto the deck if necessary.
The jack rod is installed in the bow of the ship and serves to lift the jack rod, and at night - the anchor light when the ship is anchored. When sailing at night, a box-type fire is lit at the rear of the prop to guide the helmsman on the ship, who is going into the wake of the front one.
Standing rigging(Fig. 1.28) - gear designed to support and secure the spar in a vertical, horizontal or other position. Standing rigging tackles are not permanently attached and are not passed through blocks; These include: shrouds, forestays, backstays, karnak stays, topenants, yard strings, etc.
Rice. 1.28. Standing rigging diagram:
1 - forestay-karnak; 2 - forestay; 3 - toppings of the yards; 4 - yard strings; 5 - shrouds; 6 - lanyards; 7 - backstays
Bows are gear used to strengthen masts and topmasts so that they do not tilt towards the sides. The upper ends of the shrouds are attached to the butts of the yoke on the top of the mast or topmast; the lower ends - through screw lanyards to special shrouds (shrouds), which are attached to the bulwark, side plating or deck at the sides.
Forestays - gear located in the center plane of the ship, which prevents the mast and topmast from tilting towards the stern of the ship.
Backstays are side tackles that go from the top of the mast to the side somewhat behind the mast and hold the mast together with the shrouds in the center plane of the ship and prevent it from tilting towards the bow of the ship.
The headstay is a horizontal tackle installed between the masts, which holds the mast and topmast and prevents them from tilting towards the bow (stern) of the ship.
T o p e n t s a n d s t r u n e r s are used to suspend and hold the yards in a position perpendicular to the centerline plane of the ship.
Standing rigging is always made of rigid steel cable, which has great strength and low flexibility.
Running rigging- gear that is in motion and intended for servicing and changing the position of parts of the spar, as well as for lifting and lowering cargo, boats, lifeboats, gangways, signals, sails. Running rigging includes: halyards (signals, etc.), hoist flaps, rigs, dinghies, shotguns, chipmunks, guys, sheets and other moving gear. Flexible steel and gel cables are used for running rigging.
With sails are called connected panels of canvas that absorb wind pressure and are used to move the vessel. The totality of all sails is called sailing equipment ship. Windage refers to both the total area of all sails and the types of sails that a given sail carries. vessel or boat (latin, straight, storm, etc.). A distinction is made between bow sail, the area of the sails that are located towards the bow from the vertical axis of rotation. ship, and aft - the area of the sails, which are located aft of this axis. These terms are used to study the effect that the corresponding sails have on the yaw and maneuverability of the ship.
Sail classification
Sails are divided depending on their shape and attachment location.
The shapes are divided into rectangular, trapezoidal and triangular sails.
Depending on the mounting location:
the upper edge of the sails, which are attached to the yard;
sails are one of the sides that are attached to the mast;
sails in which one of the sides is attached to a cable.
In addition, all sails can be divided into straight and oblique - the first are placed across, and the second along the center plane of the vessel. Oblique sails are divided into lateen, gaff, jibs and staysails.
Straight sails
Straight sails They have a quadrangular - rectangular or trapezoidal shape and are attached to the yard with their upper side. The lower side, usually slightly curved towards the top, is attached to the underlying yard or deck of the ship using sheets and tacks. Straight sails are easy to attach and set, and easy to divide into smaller ones. They are widespread, but it is extremely inconvenient for a ship to maneuver with them, since the smallest (effective) angle between the wind direction and the center plane of the bow of the ship is approximately 67 degrees. Vessels with such sails are the five-masted ship “Royal Clipper”, the four-masted barque “Kruzenshtern”. Depending on the yard to which the sail is attached, there are: foresails, fore-topsails (lower and upper), fore-topsails (lower and upper), main-topsails (lower and upper) and main-bom-topsails; mizzen, cruysels (lower and upper), cruys-bramsels (lower and upper) and cruys-bom-bramsels. (Fig. 1)
1 - fore-topmast-staysail; 2 - middle jib; 3 - jib; 4 - boom jib; 5 - foresail; 6 - lower fore-topsail; 7 - upper fore-topsail; 8 - lower fore-bramsel; 9 - upper fore-bramsel; 10 - fore-bom-bramsel; 11 - fore-trumsel; 12 - grotto; 13 - lower mainsail-bracket; 14 - upper mainsail; 15 - lower mainsail-bracket; 16 - upper mainsail; 17 - main-bom-bramsail; 18 - mainsail; 19 - mainsail (small sail, which was used on large sailing ships); 20 - mizzen; 21 - lower cruiser; 22 - upper cruiser; 23 - lower cruise-bramsel; 24 - upper cruise-bramsel; 25 - cruise-bom-bramsel; 26 - cruise ship; 27 - counter-mizzen; 28 - fore-under-foil; 29 - fore-mars-foil; 30 - fore-bram-foil; 31 - for-bom-bram-foil;
Straight sails Previously, they were installed on a blind-topmast (bomb-blinda-boven), as well as on a blind and bomb-blinda-yard (a blind under the bowsprit and a bomb-blind under the jig). Their special feature was two or three holes made to drain water that fell on the sail. The foresail, mainsail and mizzen are called lower or storm sails, the rest - topsails, topsails and top topsails - topsails. (Fig. 2)
set of straight sails
I - normal with one topsail: 1 - mainsail, 2 - topsail, 3 - topsail, 4 - top topsail;
II - with lower and upper topsails: 1 - mainsail, 2 - lower topsail, 3 - upper topsail, 4 - lower topsail, 5 - upper topsail, 6 - boom topsail;
lateen sails
lateen sails these are triangular-shaped sails, tied to the yard with the long side; in the center plane of the vessel, towards the stern, they are stretched using a sheet. Lateen sails are classified as oblique sails. They allow the ship to sail at an angle of 20 degrees relative to the ship's heading and wind direction. Latin sails are named depending on their belonging to a particular mast, namely: lateen foresail, mainsail and mizzen. The largest sail used on galleys was called “bastardo”, the middle one was “borda”, the smallest one was “marabotto”. Each sail was set depending on the strength of the wind. In case of bad weather, a straight storm sail was raised on the “fortuna yard”. Until the end of the 18th century, on ships with straight sails, the mizzen mast carried a lateen mizzen. Already from the middle of the 18th century, mizzens of two shapes began to be used: traditional triangular (the so-called French-type mizzen) and trapezoidal, fixed with its upper side on the yard, and the front, vertical, on the mast (mizzen English type). The mizzen of this shape was similar to a gaff sail - a trysail. (Fig. 3)
Gaff sails
Gaff sails have a trapezoidal shape and are divided into gaff sails (trisails)), gulf topsails, luger or rack And sprint. Trysail has the shape of an irregular trapezoid, which is attached with its upper edge to the mizzen gaff, the lower edge to the mizzen boom and the vertical side to the mast or trysail mast. Gulf topsail is a triangular sail, which with its lower side is attached to the mizzen gaff, and with its vertical side - to the topmast. Triseli placed on the mizzen masts of ships with straight sails and on all masts of a gaff schooner. On tenders, the trysail and gulf topsail are currently replaced by one triangular sail, the vertical side of which runs along the mast along a special groove or shoulder strap, and the lower side is attached to the boom. In the UK it was called Bermuda.
Luger or rack sails They are a type of gaff: their upper side is attached to a small rail, the halyard of which is attached to a third of the length of the rail, counting from the front end. They are called “Tretyaks”. The lower front corner of the sail is pulled towards the bow, and the rear corner - towards the stern. There is also a quarter. This is the name of a lugger sail, the front lower corner of which is attached near the mast, and the halyard is at one quarter of the length of the batten, counting from the front leg. Sprint sails are quadrangular sails with a sharp rear bow angle, which is stretched by a diagonally placed rod - the sprint. The lower end of the sprint rests against the line on the mast, and the upper end rests against the rear butt corner of the sail. Previously, gaff sails were divided into gaff sails with a gaff and a boom (brigantine); gaff sails without boom; sprint sails, similar to the above, called “livarda” - after the name of the sprint sail; luger sails, identical to the Tretyaks, and billanders, also similar to the Tretyaks. The billander was the main sail of ships used by the English and Dutch as merchant ships. These were two-masted ships with a very long trapezoidal sail, which hung on a small yard. Oblique sails include triangular sails: guari and large spherical spinnakers, installed on the bow using a shot - a spinnaker boom - and used in a tailwind. This sail is considered optional. (Fig. 4)
Staysails
These triangular sails run on forestays, which is why they get the name staysail (German: stag - forestay, segel - sail). Staysails, located between the foremast and main masts, are divided into the following: mainsail staysail (used extremely rarely), mainsail staysail (called “coal”, as the smoke from the galley chimney polluted it), mainsail staysail and mainsail -bom-bram-sail. An upsail, or “mizzen staysail”, was placed between the main and mizzen masts; cruise-staysail; kruys-bram-sailsail and kruys-bom-bram-sailsail (Fig. 5). Previously, the following staysails were distinguished: mainsail-sailsail, mainsail-staysail, “second” or “small” mainsail-staysail (midshipsail); mainsail staysail, cruise staysail or “cruise jib”; cruise-staysail, cruise-top-staysail and “second” cruise-top-staysail (rarely used).
Cleaver
These triangular sails are placed between the foremast and the bowsprit, sometimes directly on forestays or rails specially stretched for them. Cleavers appeared in the 18th century.
Modern sailing ships which have a long jib can carry the following jib: on the foresail - a storm fore-topmast staysail or fore-staysail (raised during a storm; in the 18th century, in these cases, a double sail or “storm jib” was installed); on the fore-stay-stay - fore-top-staysail; on the rails - a middle jib, a jib or a boom jib. Sometimes a sixth jib is also used, which runs along the fore-bang stay. With a small jib, sailing ships carried four jibs: a fore-topmast-staysail, a middle jib and a boom-jib (Fig. 6 b). Tenders and yachts are equipped with a special jib, the lower edge of which is of considerable length. Such jib called "Genoa" (Genoa staysail). Military vessels, as a rule, had four jibs: the fore-topmast-staysail, or “small jib”; middle jib, jib, or "second jib" or "false jib"; bom jib, or "third jib".
Additional sails
Sails that are added to the main square sails of a ship to increase speed in light winds are called auxiliary sails. These include: trapezoidal foils and top-foxels, which are placed on the sides of the topsails and topsails, triangular or quadrangular under-foxels, which are placed on the sides of the foresail and mainsail (Fig. 7 or 8).
Previously, canvas, which was attached to straight sails from the sides and sometimes from the bottom, was also called additional. These are foxes or bonnets. They distinguished: fore- and main-bonets (under-lisels), fore- and main-mars-bonets, fore- and main-bram-bonets. Sometimes bonnets or foxes were placed at both the mizzen and the cruisel. During the 14th-16th centuries, bonnets were attached from below directly to the lower sails, including the lateen mizzen. With the introduction of reefs, they went out of use (Fig. 6).
Storm sails
In stormy conditions, the sail area is usually reduced in accordance with the wind strength. Storm sails include the fore-topmast-staysail, storm fore-topmast-staysail, lower topsails, reefed mainsail, mainsail-staysail and reefed mizzen.
Sail parts
Straight sail details
The sails consist of several parallel panels of canvas, overlapped and sewn together with a double seam. The distance between the seams is 2-3 cm. The edges of the sail are folded and stitched, so they are usually double. A vegetable or flexible steel cable, called a lyctros, is sewn along the edges of the sail. The upper edge of the sail, which is tied to the yard, is called the luff or “head”, the side vertical edges are the side luffs and the lower edge is the luff or “sole” (Fig. 9).
The upper corners of the sail are called bow corners, the lower ones - clew corners. (Fig. 10). To strengthen the sail, strips of canvas are sewn in the most stressed areas. If they run parallel to the luff, then they are called bows; if they run obliquely, then they are called bows. The clew and toe corners and the cable rope are additionally sheathed with leather. Reefs are a horizontal row of strings - reef lines, threaded through the sail, which allow, if necessary, to reduce its area. When taking reefs, the canvas between the yard and the corresponding reef bow is rolled up, and the resulting roll is tied with reef bows. This method of taking reefs has survived to this day.
Along the luff of the sail there are grommets, through which small pieces of line are threaded - revenants, which serve to attach the sail to the yard line. (Fig. 11) The sail is placed on the yard and attached with small tips, the so-called outriggers, which are tied to the yard line. The jacket of the laid sail is secured with a triangular piece of canvas tied to the middle of the yard.
Vintage sails
Details vintage sails had the same features and the same designations as the parts of modern sails. Thus, on a straight sail they distinguished: panels or upper luff, “sides” (side luffs), “legs” (lower luff), clew and foot angles. There were “head”, “side” and “foot” lyktros. To reinforce the sail, boats, stopplates, reef bows with reef gats for reef seasons, etc. were sewn onto it.
Sail parts
I - lower sail or storm sail; II - topsail; III - bramsel;
1 - luff cables; 2 - side luff cables; 3 - reef-roll-hels; 4 - reef seasons; 5 - canvas of the corresponding reef; 6 - revenants; 7 - reef - bows; 8 - reef gates; 9 - krengel boots; 10 - filing; 11 - stopplat; 12 - revenants of the knocking angle; 13 - luff; 14 - side luffs; 15 - luff line; 16 - bowline spruit krengel; (Fig. 12)
full sailing rig of a three-masted ship of the 17th - 18th centuries
1 - grotto; 2 - foresail; 3 - topsails (mainsail, foretopsail or cruise); 4 - bramsel; 5 - bom-bram-sel; 6 - blind or bomb blind; 7 - mizzen; 8 - marsa-foxel; 9 - mainsail staysail; 10 - main-topmast-staysail; 11 - front canopy; 12 - under - fox; 13 - fore-topmast-staysail; 14 - boom jib; 15 - jib; 16 - middle jib; (Fig. 13)
rigging straight sails on a ship of the 18th - early 19th centuries(Fig. 14)
The sail was attached directly to the yard with the help of revants that passed through the eyelets of the luff. On the revant, so that it would not jump out of the eyelet, two knots were made. In a similar way, reef seasons were secured in reef ghats. The hoses were applied in opposite directions and then the ends were tied together. (Fig. 15)
Details of lateen sails
lateen sails They are sewn from canvas, and have folded edges trimmed with lyctross. The luff of the sail, which is attached to the yard, is called the oblique, the stern - the back and the last - the bottom (Fig. 16)
Jib parts
1 - panel; 2 - filing; 3 - lyktros; 4 - boots; 5 - luff; 6 - luff; 7 - lower luff; 8 - tack angle; 9 - kick angle; 10 - clew angle; 11 - eyelets for attaching frames; 12 - krengels;
The upper corner of the sail is called the halyard, the lower forward angle is the tack, and the lower aft angle is the clew. Also called staysail and jib parts. (Fig. 17)
lateen sails They are attached to the yardarms using a running end - a slack line, which passes through the eyelets of the sail and around the yardarm with the loops tightened with a special knot. (Fig. 18)
Gaff sail details
Gaff sails also sewn from panels of canvas and have folded edges around the perimeter. They are trimmed with liktros with corresponding reefs, krengels, bows and bows. The luff that is attached to the gaff is called the top or scythe, the luff that is attached to the mast is called the front (standing), back (clew) and last (lower). Gaff sail attached to the mast using wooden or iron hoops - segars. (Fig. 19)
Trisail parts
1 - panel; 2 - boat; 3 - lyktros; 4 - canvas of the corresponding reef; 5 - reef bows; 6 - reef clews; 7 - tack reef wings; 8 - luff; 9 - luff; 10 - luff; 11 - lower luff; 12 - knock-benzel angle; 13 - clew angle; 14 - tack angle; 15 - upper tack angle; 16 - eyelets for slack line;
Canvas for making sails
Sail sewn from linen, hemp or cotton fabrics. The latter have only transverse threads of cotton, and longitudinal (base) threads of hemp. There are five varieties of such fabrics: “katun” (for sails of shebeks and small ships), double “katun” for topsails and ship awnings, regular “katun” for boats, simple “katun” for shebeks and “katun” with small white and blue squares for tents and curtains. Sometimes “melistukh” canvas was used. It was made in Beaufort and Ogers in the departments of Mayeny and Loiret. There were two types of fabric: a thin and lighter one was used for topsails, staysails and jibs, and a coarser and stronger one was used for topsails, lower staysails, etc. Canvas always had a light gray color. Special sailing threads are used to sew sails.
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NOTE ON "MARITIME PRACTICES"
1-1.Terminology and purpose of the spar of a modern ship.
A mast is a set of ship structures made of steel pipes or metal beams designed to perform various functions (carrying lights, signs, flags, antennas, cargo devices). The spar includes: masts and booms, bow and stern flagpoles, yard and gaff. On sailing ships, the spar is designed to carry sails, lights and flags. On transport ships, masts are designed to carry lights, signs, flags, antennas and cargo booms. Anchor lights and marks are raised on the bow flagpole. Signal flags and the flag of the host (visiting) country of the vessel are hoisted on the yardarm. The National flag is hoisted on the stern flagpole when the vessel is moored. The National flag is hoisted on a gaff while the ship is moving. Fig.1.
Fig.1 Spar and standing rigging of a vessel with a mechanical engine:
1 – flagpole; 2- mainstay; 3 - gaff; 4 - main-sten-fordun; 5 - cargo booms; 6 main topmast; 7 - mainsail shroud; 8- trot-mast; 9 - main-stay-stay; 10 - half mast; 11 - stay pipes; 12 - top stay;
13- fore-wall-counter-stay; 14 - signal halyards; 15 -for-sten-fordun; 16 - fore-shrouds, 17 - foremast; 18 - for-wall-.ga; 19 - fore-stay; 20 - forestay
1-2.Rigging.
motionless standing the rigging intended for fastening the masts and spars is called shrouds (fastened from the sides of the ship) and stays (fastened the masts along the diametral line).
Fixed masts include: cargo and signal masts. Lights and signs, flags and antennas are raised on signal masts, and a cargo device is placed on cargo masts, as well as lights and flags. Also standing rigging includes: bow and stern flagpoles. The anchor lights and signs of the ship are raised on the bow flagpole, and the state flag is raised on the stern one when the ship is moored, in a port or in a roadstead. There is also an inclined spar-gaff, located on the signal mast of the ship, on which the state flag is hoisted while the ship is moving.
Rigging is a set of gear designed to control a movable spar for setting and retracting sails, cargo operations, and raising flags and signs.
Movable (running) rigging is located on the cargo device (toppenant, cargo pendant, guys) on boats and ladders (dinghies and gangplanks), and is used for lifting and lowering cargo, as well as turning the boom, for lowering and raising boats and ladders, as well as for opening and closing the ship's holds and tween decks.
^ Running rigging kept in good technical condition, constantly lubricating it and checking for suitability for work. Lubrication is made with a mixture of grease and graphite powder, called tyrovka. The cables are graded after cleaning them from rust and old grease using steel brushes by applying a thin layer of lubricant. Regularly, before starting cargo operations, cables and other rigging equipment (chains, shackles, hooks, swivels, blocks) are checked for their suitability for work. Check the integrity of the metal wires; if there are 10% broken wires along 8 diameters along the length of the cable, then the cable must be replaced with a new one. If there is wear on hook chains, blocks, and brackets that is 10 percent or more, then such rigging equipment must be replaced. Be sure to check the operation of the limit switches for turning the crane, lifting and lowering cargo boom and a cargo pendant.
Maintenance of standing rigging is as follows: regular painting; if rust appears, remove it and then paint the spar; if 10% of the original diameter of the spar is lost, it is necessary to replace this area with a new one, cut out the area damaged by rust and weld in a new one.
Steel cables are used for running and standing rigging on modern ships. These are topnants, pendants, guy ropes, tackle hoists, and whistles for opening and closing holds. Plant ropes are used for minor work (guys, painters, slings, railings).
^1-3. Rope tensile strength. The breaking force of the cable is the force on the cable at which the cable breaks. The breaking force is checked at the manufacturer's factory and data on the breaking force is entered into a quality certificate, which is issued to the ship along with the cable and is stored on the ship while the cable is in operation. The certificate also indicates the manufacturer, the material of manufacture, the number of wires in the cable, and the diameter of the cable. The breaking force of the cable is necessary to determine the working load of the cable.
The working load is the load at which the cable operates freely without breaking. To determine the working load of the cable, it is necessary to enter the safety factor of the cable; for cables that perform cargo work (lifting loads), the safety factor is sixfold, and for lifting people, the safety factor is twelvefold. An example of how to determine the working load of a cable: Breaking force of the cable: 60 tons (indicated in the quality certificate) divided by 6 (margin of safety) and we get a working load of 10 tons (60 tons: 6 = 10 tons). To lift people, we introduce a safety factor of 12 and get - 60: 12 = 5 tons. The number 60 is taken as an example; it can be more or less depending on the thickness of the cable.
^ 1- 4 Vessel rigging. Rigging items include hooks, eyes, butts, cleats, blocks, chains, staples, etc. Among the many hooks, it is necessary to pay attention to the cargo hook; its difference is that the nose of the hook is bent inward and therefore it does not cling to ship structures during cargo operations. The hooks must have a stamp indicating the safe working load (SWL). Also, the verb-hook is a hook that can be released under tension, it is used when securing a caravan of timber on the deck of a ship, as well as when securing rafts on the deck of a ship, railings on boats decks and in other similar cases. Fig 2.
Rice. 2. Gaki (A - ordinary simple; b - ordinary turn; V - swivel; G- ship cargo hook; 3 - snoring; e- verb-hack): 1 - butt; 2 - back; 3 - toe hook
The butt is a powerful structure welded to the deck or ship structure, which can withstand a load twice as large as the eye. An eye is a ring that is mounted into the butt and is used for minor loads. Thimbles are used in the manufacture of fires on steel and plant cables to prevent wear of the cable. Fig.3.
Rice. 3. Eye-2 and butt - 1. Thimbles - 3.
The blocks can be single-pulley or multi-pulley; from two blocks you can make a hoist for lifting a load. Caniface block, this is a block with a folding part (cheek) is used when it is necessary to insert the cable into the block not from the end, but from its middle. The blocks must be marked with a test mark and trademark manufacturer. Fig.4.
Fig.4 Blocks:
A - single pulley (1
- suspension; 2
- binding; 3
- flow, 4
- pulley; 5
-nog; 6
- liner; 7 - device for fastening the main end of the cable); b- cargo (7 - suspension; 2
- binding; 3
- frame; 4 -
pulley); V- rosin block (1 -
pendant; 2 - fitting; 3
- pulley; 4
- dowel; 5 - body; 6 - rotary stopper; 7
- folding part).
1-5. Gordeni and tali, their use on board. A gorden is a lifting device consisting of a single-pulley block fixed motionless and a cable (pendant) passed through it. The gorden gives a convenient direction of traction without any gain in strength. Used to change the direction of lifting a load. Fig.5.
Rice. 5. Gorden
A hoist is a lifting device with a manual or mechanical drive, consisting of two blocks through which a steel or plant cable passes; its running end is called a shovel. According to the purpose of the hoists, they are distinguished: sloop hoists (for raising and lowering boats), rumnel hoists (steering control), grab hoists (lifting small weights). Fig.6.
Rice. 6. Hoist base (A - 4-pin; b - 6-pulley):
I - block with devices for fastening the main end of the cable;
II - second block; 1-7 -
cable wiring sequence
Multi-pulley hoists provide a good gain in strength and are therefore used in lifting mechanisms, especially on heavy booms and crane booms. When lifting a load of 60 tons, the load on the winch will be no more than 20 tons. Multi-pulley hoists or hoists are used on cranes and floating cranes for lifting large loads; they have two 8- or 12-pulley blocks that allow lifting loads from 100 to 2000 tons .
Figure 7 shows the use of guineas on a heavy arrow.
Rice. 7.Heavy cargo device with a reversible boom with a lifting capacity of up to 300 tons (Stülken system).
1-6.Safety when working with rigging equipment. First of all, the tool for work must be in good working order and suitable for work. You cannot use eyelets to secure the cargo hook, because The eye is much weaker than the butt and when the load boom pendant or hook is pulled, the eye is destroyed and can injure workers. When using hoists, it is necessary to make sure that the butt to which the hub or hoists are attached must be securely fastened, which prevents the hub from falling along with the load and injuring working people. Before using staples, chains, blocks, the degree of wear of the working surfaces and swivels should be checked; wear should not exceed 10% of the original diameter. When making a fire and using a pile, you cannot stand opposite the person working with the pile because very often the pile slips off the cable and can injure the person standing opposite. When cutting strands of a metal cable, the chisel should have a welded handle or an elongated one, so as not to injure the hands of the person holding the chisel. It is necessary to work with glasses and gloves; a hydraulic cable cutter is safe.
Topic No. 2. Technical operation of the ship’s hull and premises.
^1-7. Tools used to maintain the vessel. The following tools are used to care for the vessel: picks, scrapers, metal brushes, paint brushes, rollers. As well as mechanical tools: pneumatic turbines, pneumatic hammers, pneumatic chisels, etc.
For large areas, mechanical turbines and mechanical brushes are used, and in corners and narrow areas, pneumatic hammers and chisels are used, after which the surface is thoroughly cleaned metal brushes and, if necessary, degrease with a solvent. Only after this is the surface ready for application of primer, which is usually applied in 2-3 layers, and then 2 layers of enamel or epoxy paint. To apply paint, brushes are used (fly brush, flute brush, angled brush, marking brush), as well as rollers different sizes for applying paint. On large pre-prepared surfaces, pneumatic paint sprayers are used.
To remove cement residues ( white coating) use “cement remover” liquid, it is diluted with water in a ratio of 1:4, applied to the surface, and then washed off with water, this liquid is toxic, so you must protect your respiratory organs and eyes. If there is a coating of rust on the metal, it can be removed using a rust remover; a thick layer of rust must be removed mechanically. To remove rust stains on paint, use a solution of oxalic acid, followed by rinsing with water.
^ 1-8. paints and varnishes, primers, putties. Varnishes are solutions of natural and synthetic resins or their compounds with oil and other substances in some volatile solvent. Depending on the film-forming base, varnishes can be oil, alkyd, bitumen, nitrocellulose, polyvinyl, epoxy, etc. They are used both in their pure form for coating wooden and metal structures, and for the preparation of various enamel paints. Alkyd-based varnishes PF-283 and GF-166 are used for coatings of wood and metal surfaces. Oil paints use natural and artificial drying oil as a film former. Enamel paints are prepared using varnishes; when dry, the enamels form a hard, shiny, glossy surface. Emulsion paints- quick-drying with reduced flammability and increased frost resistance, which are prepared using latexes (rubber copolymers). Special paints are antifouling, acid and alkali resistant. They are used to paint the underwater part of the ship's hull in order to prevent them from becoming overgrown with microorganisms.
^ Primers and putty. Primers are the lower layers of paint and varnish coatings, i.e. layers applied directly to the surface to be painted. The main purpose of the primer is to protect the metal surface from corrosion and ensure good adhesion to subsequent layers of paint. Primers must have low viscosity in order to penetrate into all pores of the primed surface, high anti-corrosion and water resistance. Primers are distinguished for metals and light alloys, non-ferrous alloys and wood. Oil primers are used to prime surfaces that are then painted with oil paints. To prime metal surfaces above the waterline, use a mixed primer consisting of lead and iron lead. To prime wooden surfaces, the primer is diluted with linseed oil in a ratio of 1:2. Zinc white is widely used for priming galvanized surfaces and light alloy structures. Protective primers have protective properties, which are based on the fact that the metal being painted becomes a cathode and does not corrode, and the metal pigment (zinc dust) is exposed to corrosion.
Putties are thick putties for smoothing out unevenness and roughness on the surface to be painted. The main components of the putty are a filler - powdered chalk and a film former - drying oil or varnish. Depending on the film-forming agent, putties can be oil-based, varnish-based, clay-based, epoxy, etc.
^ 1-9 Preparing the surface for painting and painting various surfaces. Before resuming painting, steel surfaces are cleaned of loose paint and rust. Depending on the size of the corroding surface, it is beaten with picks or pneumatic hammers. For loose paint, scrapers, steel brushes, mechanical brushes and turbines are used. The metal must be upholstered in such a way that after this there are no nicks, burrs or nicks that increase corrosion. Particular care is taken in cleaning metal joints and welds and various recesses in the metal. The cleaned surface must be wiped with a rag, and if there are oil stains, then wiped with a solvent.
Galvanized and aluminum surfaces should be cleaned with extreme care, avoiding damage to the zinc coating and oxide film, as this leads to rapid corrosion of the metal. Therefore, it is better to clean them with scrapers and brushes. Aluminum surfaces should be cleaned with aluminum scrapers.
Before painting, wooden surfaces must be dry, clean, smooth, without glue swelling, grease or oil stains. The moisture content of the wood before painting should not be more than 15%. Previously painted wooden surfaces are cleaned of weakly adherent old paint scrapers or sandpaper. After sanding, the surface is opened 1-2 times with natural drying oil, to which dry ocher is added to create roughness, which facilitates better paint application.
Before painting, you need to prepare the paint composition and the desired color. When mixing paints, you must remember that not all paints can be mixed with each other. To avoid coagulation, oil-based paints and paints containing white spirit should not be added to nitro paints. Emulsion paints do not mix with epoxy paints. Due to the fact that many paints are toxic and flammable, precautions must be taken when preparing them.
^1-10. Manual and mechanized painting of surfaces. Manual painting of the surface is done using brushes and rollers. Mechanical painting is painting using a spray gun. Shipyards and ship repair plants use special painting machines that occupy a large area for painting and evenly apply paint to the surface of the ship's hull.
Manual painting consists of the following: a brush or roller is dipped into the paint, then the excess paint is removed by wiping the brush on a board or bucket body, and only then the paint is applied to the surface without splashing it on the deck. When painting with a roller, make the following movements: dip the roller in the paint and then, without removing it from the bucket, roll out the excess paint on a board located inside the bucket and only after that begin painting the surface.
To operate the spray gun, it is necessary to prepare a sufficient amount of surface for painting, and then prepare the spray gun for work and prepare the person (cover the face generously with Vaseline, wear clothes that cover the entire body). When painting, avoid getting paint on rubber seals, portholes, lighting, lubricating the glass with grease or sticking paper on them.
^ 1-11. Ship cleaning on a ship. The cleaning procedure is determined by the chief mate together with the ship's doctor.
Daily cleaning are carried out by the ship's crew in their departments and in their personal cabins every day in the morning.
Sanitary emergencies are carried out under the guidance of the chief mate and the ship's doctor. During a sanitary emergency, they do a wet tidy of the entire cabin, including bulkheads and ceilings. The bedding is taken to the deck, where it is cleaned and aired. Cabinets, lockers and drawers are cleared of unnecessary items and washed. Ship decks are also thoroughly washed from top to bottom, with bulkheads and decks washed. Before starting to wash the vessel, all ship mats are collected and prepared for washing. At the end of washing the vessel, the portholes are washed with fresh water and then wiped with a special solution. After washing, all copper parts are polished to a shine. Sanitary emergency operations are carried out once a month and are timed to coincide with the arrival of the ship at the port or after a long stay of the ship in the port. Throwing trash, rags or highly soapy water overboard is prohibited. Draining soapy water into the toilet is prohibited because... it kills bacteria in the fecal system, and the water can be drained into the sink. After a ship leaves the port, a lot of garbage usually accumulates on the ship, so plastic and large garbage are burned in the ship's incinerator, and small garbage and food waste are thrown overboard, in accordance with the requirements of the MARPOL 73/78 convention.
^ 1-12. Disinfection and disinsection of the vessel.Disinfection produced daily and special cases as directed by the ship's doctor or chief mate, daily disinfection is carried out in areas common use for disinfection of toilets, baths, bathhouses, swimming pools, etc. The purpose of daily disinfection is to prevent the occurrence of infectious diseases on the ship. When fungal diseases or scabies appear, as well as in severe infectious diseases the patient is isolated, and his things and bed linen are sanitized.
Pest control carried out by the crew under the guidance of the ship's doctor or chief mate to destroy harmful insects (flies, cockroaches, bedbugs, etc.). When they appear on the ship, dry and wet disinfestation is carried out. Dry is the spraying of various toxic powdered preparations (chlorophos, karbofos, dichlorvos). Wet disinfestation is carried out with a sodium hydroxide solution or a lime-kerosene emulsion. If necessary, SES also performs gas disinfestation using chloropicrin and dechloritane.
^ Deratization of the vessel, obtaining a certificate. Deratization is carried out by SES operators with the aim of exterminating rodents (rats, mice) by fumigating (gassing) the premises toxic substances: sulfur dioxide, chloropecrin, methyl bromide. The ship is moored to a special berth in the port. The premises are tightly closed and sealed, food products are removed, the crew is evicted from the ship for the duration of the gasification, and the watch is maintained on shore. Vessel deratization is carried out 2 times a year for foreign vessels, for others - 1 time a year. If there are no rodents on the ship, the ship is exempt from rodent control and a certificate is issued. The deratization certificate is an international document that is presented at the request of the port sanitary services.
Fumigation- this is the destruction of cargo pests, it is carried out on the ship after loading the ship with food products (grain, cakes, tapioca, etc.). Under current conditions, fumigation is carried out on the voyage without eviction of the crew.
Source: Central Maritime Club DOSAAF RSFSR. Publishing house DOSAAF. Moscow, 1987
§1. Spar.
A spar is the name given to all wooden, and on modern ships, metal parts that are used to carry sails, flags, raise signals, etc. The masts on a sailing ship include: masts, topmasts, yards, gaffs, booms, bowsprits, props, spears and shotguns.
Masts.
Salings and ezelgofts, depending on their location and belonging to a particular mast, also have their own names: for-saling, for-bram-saling, mast ezelgoft. for-sten-ezelgoft, kruys-sten-ezelgoft, bowsprit ezelgoft (connecting the bowsprit with the jib), etc.
Bowsprit.
A bowsprit is a horizontal or slightly inclined beam (inclined mast), protruding from the bow of a sailing ship, and used to carry straight sails - a blind and a bomb blind. Until the end of the 18th century, the bowsprit consisted of only one tree with a blind topmast (), on which straight blind and bomb blind sails were installed on the blind yard and bomb blind yard.
Since the end of the 18th century, the bowsprit has been lengthened with the help of a jib, and then a bom-blind (), and blind and bomb-blind sails are no longer installed on it. Here it serves to extend the stays of the foremast and its topmasts and to attach the bow triangular sails - jibs and staysails, which improved the propulsion and agility of the ship. At one time, triangular sails were combined with straight ones.
The bowsprit itself was attached to the bow of the ship using a water-vuling made of a strong cable, and later (19th century) and chains. To tie the wooling, the main end of the cable was attached to the bowsprit, then the cable was passed through the hole in the bowdiged, around the bowsprit, etc. Usually they installed 11 hoses, which were tightened in the middle with transverse hoses. From the sliding of the guards and stays along the bowsprit, several wooden attachments were made on it - bis ().
Bowstrits with a jib and bom-jib had a vertical martin boom and horizontal blind gaffs for carrying the standing rigging of the jib and bom-jib.
Rhea.
A ray is a round, spindle-shaped spar that tapers evenly at both ends, called noks ().
Shoulders are made at both legs, close to which perts, slings of blocks, etc. are pinned. Yards are used for attaching straight sails to them. The yards are attached in the middle to the masts and topmasts in such a way that they can be raised, lowered and rotated horizontally to set the sails in the most advantageous position relative to the wind.
At the end of the 18th century, additional sails appeared - foxes, which were placed on the sides of the main sails. They were attached to small yards - lisel-spirits, extended to the sides of the ship along the main yard through the yoke ().
Yards also take names depending on their belonging to one or another mast, as well as on their location on the mast. So, the names of the yards on various masts, counting them from bottom to top, are as follows: on the foremast - fore-yard, fore-mars-yard, fore-front-yard, fore-bom-front-yard; on the main mast - main-yard, main-marsa-ray, main-bram-ray, main-bom-bram-ray; on the mizzen mast - begin-ray, cruisel-ray, cruis-bram-ray, cruis-bom-bram-ray.
Gaffs and booms.
The gaff is a special yard, strengthened obliquely at the top of the mast (behind it) and raised up the mast. On sailing ships it was used to fasten the upper edge (luff) of the oblique sail - trysail and oblique mizzen (). The heel (inner end) of the gaff has a wooden or metal mustache covered with leather, holding the gaff near the mast and encircling it like a grab, both ends of which are connected to each other by a bayfoot. Bayfoot can be made of vegetable or steel cable, covered with leather or with balls placed on it, the so-called raks-klots.
To set and remove sails on ships with oblique rigs and mizzen oblique sails, the gaff is raised and lowered with the help of two running rigging gear - a gaff-gardel, which lifts the gaff by the heel, and a dirik-halyard, which lifts the gaff by the toe - the outer thin end ().
On ships with direct rigging, the oblique sails - trysails - are pulled (when they are retracted) to the gaff by gaffs, but the gaff is not lowered.
Booms are used to stretch the lower luff of oblique sails. The boom is movably fastened with a heel (the inner end to the mast using a swivel or mustache, like a gaff (). The outer end of the boom (knob) when the sail is set is supported by a pair of topenants, strengthened on one side and the other of the boom.
Gaffs and booms, armed with an oblique sail on the mizzen, began to be used in the Russian fleet approximately from the second half of the 18th century, and in the times of Peter the Great, a Latin yard (ryu) was hung obliquely on the mizzen to carry a Latin triangular sail. Such a yard was raised in an inclined position so that one leg (rear) was raised high, and the other was lowered almost to the deck ()
Having familiarized ourselves with each spar tree separately, we will now list all the spar trees according to their location on the sailing ship, with their full name ():
I - knyavdiged; II - latrine; III - crumble; IV - bulwark, on top of it - sailor's bunks; V - fore-beam and stay-stays; VI - mainsail channel and stay cables; VII - mizzen channel and shrouds; VIII - right sink: IX - balconies; X - main-wels-barhout; XI - chanel-wels-barhout: XII - shir-wels-barhout; XIII - shir-strek-barkhout; XIV - rudder feather.
| Rice. 9. Spar of a three-deck 126-gun battleship from the mid-19th century. |
| 1 - bowsprit; 2 - jig; 3 - bom-fitter; 4 - martin boom; 5 - gaff blind; 6 - bowsprit ezelgoft; 7 - rod guy; 8 - foremast; 9 - top of the foremast; 10 - fore-trisail mast; 11 - topmasts; 12 - mast ezelgoft; 13 - fore topmast; 14 - top fore-topmast; 15 - for-saling; 16 - ezelgoft fore-topmast; 17 - fore topmast, made into one tree with fore top topmast; 18-19 - top forebom topmast; 20 - klotik; 21 - fore-beam; 22 - for-marsa lisel-alcohols; 23 - fore-mars-ray; 24 - for-bram-lisel-alcohols; 25 - fore-frame; 26 - for-bom-bram-ray; 27 -for-trisel-gaff; 28 - mainmast; 29 - top of the mainmast; 30 - main-trisail-mast; 31 - mainsail; 32 - mast ezelgoft; 33 - main topmast; 34 - top of the main topmast; 35 - main saling; 36 - ezelgoft main topmast; 37 - main topmast, made into one tree with the main topmast; 38-39 - top main-bom-topmast; 40 - klotik; 41 - grottoes; 42 - grotto-marsa-lisel-spirits; 43 - main-marsa-ray; 44 - main-bram-foil-spirits; 45 - main beam; 46 - main-bom-bram-ray; 47 - mainsail-trisail-gaff; 48 - mizzen mast; 49 - top of the mizzen mast; 50 - mizzen-trysel-mast; 51 - cruise-mars; 52 - mast ezelgoft: 53 - topmast; 54 - top cruise topmast; 55 -kruys-saling; 56 - ezelgoft topmast; 57 - cruising topmast, made into one tree with cruising topmast; 58-59 - top cruise-bom-topmast; 60 - klotik; 61 - begin-ray; 62 - cruise-marsa-rey or cruisel-rey; 63 - cruise-bram-ray; 64 - cruise-bom-bram-ray; 65 - mizzen boom; 66 - mizzen-gaff: 67 - stern flagpole. |
§2. Basic proportions of spar trees for battleships.
The length of the mainmast is determined by the length of the ship along the gondeck, folded to its greatest width and divided in half. The length of the foremast is 8/9, and the mizzen mast is 6/7 the length of the mainmast. The length of the main and foremast tops is 1/6, and the mizzen mast top is 1/8-2/13 of their length. The largest diameter of the masts is located at the forward deck and is 1/36 for the foremast and main mast, and 1/41 of their length for the mizzen mast. The smallest diameter is under the top and is 3/5-3/4, and the spur has 6/7 of the largest diameter.
The length of the main topmast is equal to 3/4 of the length of the main mast. The length of the topmasts is 1/9 of the entire length of the topmast. The largest diameter of the topmasts is found in mast ezelgofts and is equal to 6/11 of the diameter of the mainmast for the main and fore topmasts, and 5/8 of the diameter of the mizzen mast for the cruise topmast. The smallest diameter under the top is 4/5 of the largest.
The length of the topmasts, made into one tree with the boom topmasts and their flagpoles (or tops), is made up of: the length of the topmast equal to 1/2 of its topmast, the boom topmast - 5/7 of its topmast topmast and flagstaff equal to 5/7 of its topmast. The largest diameter of the topmast at the ezelgoft wall is 1/36 of its length, the boom topmast is 5/8 of the topmast diameter, and the smallest diameter of the flagpole is 7/12 of the topmast diameter.
Bowsprit length - 3/5 of the length of the mainmast, largest diameter(at the bulwark above the stem) is equal to the diameter of the mainmast or less by 1/15-1/18. The lengths of the jib and bom jib are 5/7 of the length of the bowsprit, the largest diameter of the jib is 8/19, and the bom jib is 5/7 of the diameter of the bowsprit is 1/3 from their lower ends, and the smallest is at the legs - 2/3 largest diameter.
The length of the main yard is equal to the width of the ship multiplied by 2 plus 1/10 of the width. The total length of both legs is 1/10, and the largest diameter is 1/54 of the length of the yard. The length of the main-tops-yard is 5/7 of the main-yard, the legs are 2/9, and the largest diameter is 1/57 of the length of the main-tops-yard. The length of the main top-yard is 9/14 of the main top-yard, the legs are 1/9 and the largest diameter is 1/60 of this yard. All sizes of the fore-yard and fore-tops-yard are 7/8 of the size of the mainsail and main-tops-yard. The Begin-ray is equal to the main-marsa-yard, but the length of both legs is 1/10 of the length of the yard, the cruisel-yard is equal to the main-bram-yard, but the length of both legs is 2/9 of the length of the yard, and the cruis-brow-yard equal to 2/3 of the main beam. All bom-bram-yards are equal to 2/3 of their bram-yards. Blinda-ray is equal to for-Mars-ray. The largest diameter of the yards is in their middle. The yards from the middle to each end are divided into four parts: on the first part from the middle - 30/31, on the second - 7/8, on the third - 7/10 and at the end - 3/7 of the largest diameter. The mizzen boom is equal to the length and thickness of the fore- or main-tops yard. Its largest diameter is above the tailrail. The mizzen gaff is 2/3 long and 6/7 boom thick, its largest diameter is at the heel. The length of the martin booms is 3/7, and the thickness is 2/3 of a jig (there were two of them until the second quarter of the 19th century).
The main topmast is 1/4 the length of the main topmast and 1/2 the width of the ship. The fore-topsight is 8/9, and the cruise-topsight is 3/4 of the main topsea. The main saling has long salings 1/9 the length of its topmast, and spreaders 9/16 the width of the topsail. For-saling is equal to 8/9, and kruys-saling is 3/4 of grot-saling.
§3. Standing rigging spar.
The bowsprit, masts and topmasts on a sailing ship are secured in a specific position using special rigging called standing rigging. Standing rigging includes: shrouds, forduns, stays, backstays, perths, as well as the jib and boom jib of the lifeline.
Once wound, the standing rigging always remains motionless. Previously it was made from thick plant cable, and on modern sailing ships it was made from steel cable and chains.
Shrouds are the name given to standing rigging gear that strengthens masts, topmasts and topmasts from the sides and somewhat from the rear. Depending on which spar tree the cable stays hold, they receive additional names: fore-stays, fore-wall-stays, fore-frame-wall-stays, etc. The shrouds also serve to lift personnel onto masts and topmasts when working with sails. For this purpose, hemp, wood or metal castings are strengthened across the cables at a certain distance from each other. Hemp bleachings were tied to the shrouds with a bleaching knot () at a distance of 0.4 m from one another.
The lower shrouds (hemp) were made the thickest on sailing ships, their diameter on battleships reached up to 90-100 mm, the wall-shrouds were made thinner, and the top-wall-shrouds were even thinner. The shrouds were thinner than their shrouds.
The topmasts and topmasts are additionally supported from the sides and somewhat from the rear by forduns. Forduns are also named after the masts and topmasts on which they stand. For example, for-sten-forduns, for-bram-sten-forduns, etc.
The upper ends of the shrouds and forduns are attached to the mast or topmast using ogons (loops) put on the tops of masts, topmasts and topmasts (). Guys, wall-guys and frame-wall-guys are made in pairs, i.e. from one piece of cable, which is then folded and cut according to the thickness of the top on which it is applied. If the number of shrouds on each side is odd, then the last shroud to the stern, including the forduns, are made split (). The number of shrouds and forearms depends on the height of the mast and the carrying capacity of the vessel.
The shrouds and forduns were stuffed (tightened) with cable hoists on deadeyes - special blocks without pulleys with three holes for a cable lanyard, with the help of which the shrouds and forduns are stuffed (tensioned). On modern sailing ships, the rigging is covered with metal screw shrouds.
In former times, on all military sailing ships and large merchant ships, in order to increase the angle at which the lower shrouds and forduns go to the masts, powerful wooden platforms - rusleni () - were strengthened on the outer side of the ship, at deck level.
| Rice. 11. Tightening the shrouds with deadeyes. |
The shrouds were secured with shrouds forged from iron strips. The lower end of the shrouds was attached to the side, and the deadeyes were attached to their upper ends so that the latter almost touched their lower part with the channel.
The upper deadeyes are tied into the shrouds and forduns using lights and benzels (marks) (). The root end of the lanyard is attached to the hole in the shroud-jock using a turnbuckle button, and the running end of the lanyard, after tightening the shrouds, having made several slags around them, is attached to the shroud using two or three benzels. Having established turnbuckles between all the deadeyes of the lower shrouds, they tied an iron rod to them on top of the deadeyes - vorst (), which prevented the deadeyes from twisting, keeping them at the same level. The topmast shrouds were equipped in the same way as the lower shrouds, but their deadeyes were somewhat smaller.
The standing rigging gear that supports the spars (masts and topmasts) in the center plane in front is called forestays, which, like the lower shrouds, were made of thick cable. Depending on which spar tree the stays belong to, they also have their own names: fore-stay, fore-stay-stay, fore-stay, etc. The headlights of the stays are made the same as those of the shrouds, but their sizes are larger (). The forestays are stuffed with lanyards on forestay blocks ().
Standing rigging also includes perths - plant ropes on yards (see), on which sailors stand while working with sails on yards. Usually one end of the perts is attached to the end of the yardarm, and the other in the middle. The perths are supported by props - sections of cable attached to the yard.
Now let's see how the standing rigging will look completely on a 90-gun two-deck sail battleship the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries with its full name (): 1 - water stays; 2 - Martin stay; 3 - Martin stay from the boom stay (or lower backstay); 4 - forestay; 5 - for-elk-stay; 6 - fore-elk-stay-stay (serves as a rail for the fore-top-staysail); 7 - fore-stay-stay; 8 - jib-rail; 9 - fore-gateway-wall-stay; 10 - boom-jib-rail; 11 - fore-bom-gateway-wall-stay; 12 - mainstay; 13 - main-elk-stay; 14 - main-elk-wall-stay; 15-mainsail-stay; 18 - mizzen stay; 19 - cruise-stay-stay; 20 - cruise-brow-stay-stay; 21 - cruise-bom-bram-wall-stay; 22 water tank stays; 23 - jib-backstays; 24 - boom-jumper-backstays; 25 - fore shrouds; 26 - fore-wall-shrouds; 27-fore-frame-wall-shrouds; 28 - for-sten-forduns; 29 - for-bram-wall-forduns; 30 - for-bom-bram-sten-forduns; 31 - main shrouds; 32 - main-wall-shrouds; 33 - main-frame-wall-shroud; 34 - main-sten-forduns; 35 - grotto-gateway-wall-forduny; 36 - grotto-bom-bram-wall-forduny; 37 - mizzen shrouds; 38 - cruise-wall-shroud; 39 - cruise-bram-wall-shroud; 40 - kruys-sten-forduny; 41 - kruys-bram-sten-forduny; 42 - kruys-bom-bram-sten-fortuny.
§4. The order of application, places of traction and thickness of hemp standing rigging.
Water stays, 1/2 thick of the bowsprit, are inserted into a hole in the leading edge of the bowsprit, attached there and raised to the bowsprit, where they are pulled by cable turnbuckles located between the deadeyes. The water backstays (one on each side) are hooked behind the butts, driven into the hull under the crimps, and are pulled from the bowsprit like water stays.
Then the shrouds are applied, which are made in pairs, with a thickness of 1/3 of their mast. Each end assigned to a pair of cables is folded in half and a bend is made at the bend using a benzel. First, the front right, then the front left pair of shrouds, etc. are put on the top of the mast. If the number of cables is odd, then the latter is made split, i.e. single. The shrouds are pulled by cable lanyards, based between the deadeyes tied into the lower ends of the shrouds, and the deadeyes fastened at the channel with the shrouds. The fore and main stays are made 1/2 thick, the mizzen stays are 2/5 of their masts, and the elk stays are 2/3 of their stays, ( hemp ropes measured by the circumference, and spars - by the largest diameter).
They are put on the tops of the masts so that they cover the long-salings with the lights. The forestay and forestay are pulled by cable turnbuckles on the bowsprit, the mainstay and mainstay are on the deck on the sides and in front of the foremast, and the mizzen stay branches into legs and is attached to the deck on the sides of the mainstay. mast or passes through the thimble on the mainmast and stretches on the deck.
The main-shrouds, 1/4 thick of their topmasts, are pulled on the top platform by turnbuckles, mounted between the deadeyes tied into the main-shrouds and the deadeyes fastened to the eye-shrouds. The topmasts, 1/3 of the thickness of their topmasts, stretch on the channels like shrouds. The mainstays have a thickness of 1/3, and the elk-stays have a thickness of 1/4 of their topmasts, the fore-stay-stay is carried into a pulley on the right side of the bowsprit, and the fore-stay-stay - on the left. The main-stay-stay and the main-elk-stay-stay are carried through the pulleys of the blocks on the foremast and are pulled by the gypsum on the deck. The stay-stay cruise passes through the block pulley on the mainmast and extends on the topsail.
The standing rigging of the jib and boom jib is made 1/4 thick of its spar trees. Each marin stay is passed sequentially into the holes of its martin boom (there are two of them), where it is held with a button, then into the pulley of the block on the toe of the jig, into the pulley on the martin boom and on the bowsprit, and is pulled onto the forecastle. The jib backstays (two on each side) are tied with the middle end to the jib of the jib, their ends are inserted into thimbles near the legs of the blind yard and are pulled on the forecastle. The bom-jugger-backstay is also applied and pulled. The Martin stay from the boom jib is attached with the middle end to the end of the jib jib. and passing through the pulleys on the martin boom and bowsprit, it stretches to the forecastle.
The top stays and top stays are made 2/5 thick, and the top stays are made 1/2 of their top topmasts. The top shrouds are passed through holes in the saling spreaders, pulled up to the topmast and descended along the top shrouds to the top, where they are pulled by turnbuckles through thimbles at their ends. The fore-forestay passes into a pulley at the end of the jib and stretches on the forecastle, the main-forestay goes into a pulley on the fore-topmast, and the cruise-forestay goes into a pulley at the top of the mainmast and both are pulled on the deck.
Bom-bram-rigging is carried out and pulled like a bram-rigging.
§5. Running rigging spar.
Running rigging of a spar refers to all movable gear through which work is carried out related to lifting, selecting, pickling and turning spar trees - yards, gaffs, shots, etc.
The running rigging of the spar includes girdles and driers. halyards, braces, topenants, sheets, etc.
On ships with direct sails, the guards are used to raise and lower the lower yards with sails (see) or gaffs (its heels); dryropes for lifting the topsails, and halyards for lifting the top-yards and boom-yards, as well as oblique sails - jibs and staysails.
The tackle with which the toe of the gaff is raised and supported is called a dirik-halyard, and the tackle that lifts the gaff by the heel along the mast is called a gaff-gardel.
The gear that serves to support and level the ends of the yards is called topenants, and for turning the yards - brahms.
Now let's get acquainted with all the running rigging of the spar, with its full names, according to its location on the ship ():
Gear used for raising and lowering the yards: 1 - fore-yard girdle; 2 - for-mars-drayrep; 3 - fore-tops-halyard; 4 - fore-bram-halyard; 5 - fore-bom-bram-halyard; 6 - gardel of the mainsail; 7 - main-marsa-drayrep; 8 - mainsail-halyard; 9 main halyard; 10 - main-bom-brow-halyard; 11 - gardel-begin-ray; 12 - cruise-topsail-halyard; 13 - cruise-marsa-drairep; 14 - cruise halyard; 15 - cruise-bom-bram-halyard; 16 - gaff-gardel; 17 - dirk-halyard.
Gear used to support and level the ends of the yards: 18 - blind-toppenants; 19 - foka-topenants; 20 - fore-mars-topenants; 21 - for-bram-topenants; 22 - for-bom-bram-topenants; 23 - mainsail-topenants; 24 - main-mars-topenants; 25 - main-frame-topenants; 26 - main-bom-bram-topenants; 27 - beguin-topenants; 28 - cruise-marsa-topenants; 29 - cruis-bram-topenants; 30-kruys-bom-bram-topenants; 31 - mizzen-geek-topenants; 31a - mizzen-geek-topenant pendant.
Gear used for turning the yards: 32 - blind-tris (bram-blinda-yard); 33 - fore-braces; 34 - fore-tops-braces; 35 - fore-braces; 36 - fore-bom-braces; 37 - main-contra-braces; 38 - mainsail braces; 39 - main-topsail-braces; 40 - main-frame-braces; 41 - main-bom-braces; 42 - beguin braces; 43 - cruise-tops-braces; 44 - cruise-braces; 45 - cruise-bom-braces; 46 - Erins backstays; 47 - blockage; 48 - mizzen-jig-sheet.
§6. Wiring of the running rigging shown in.
The foresail and mainsail are based between two or three-pulley blocks, two are strengthened under the topsail and two near the middle of the yard. The begin-gardel is based between one three-pulley block under the topsail and two single-pulley blocks on the yard. The running ends of the guards are mounted on bollards.
The fore- and main-mars-drires are attached with the middle end to the topmast, their running ends are each carried into their own blocks on the yardarm and under the saling, and blocks are woven into their ends. Marsa halyards are based between these blocks and the blocks on the riverbeds. Their flaps are pulled through the side bollards. The cruisel-marsa-drayrep is taken with its root end in the middle of the yard, and the running gear is passed through a pulley in the topmast under the saling and a block of the top-sailing halyard is inserted into its end, which is based on a mantyl - the root end is attached to the left channel, and the hoist to the right.
The top and boom halyards are taken with the root end in the middle of their yard, and the running ends are guided into the pulley of their topmast and pulled by the hulls: the top halyards are on the deck, and the boom halyards are on the topside.
The gaff-gardel is based between the block on the heel of the gaff and the block under the cruis-tops. The main end of the halyard is attached to the top of the topmast, and the running end is carried through the blocks on the gaff and the top of the mast. Their running ends are attached to bollards.
The blind-toppings are based between the blocks on both sides of the bowsprit eselgoft and on the ends of the blind-yard, and their flaps stretch on the forecastle. The foresail and main-topenants are based between three- or two-pulley blocks, and the beguin-topenants are based between two- or single-pulley blocks on both sides of the mast ezelgoft and on both ends of the yards. Their running ends, passed through the “dog holes”, are attached to bollards. The middle end of the top-stops is attached to the topmast, and the running ends, taken with a half-bayonet by the front shrouds, are inserted into blocks on the yard legs, into the lower pulleys of the butt blocks. through the “dog holes” and are attached next to the lower topenants. The bram- and bom-bram-topenants are put on with a point on the legs of the yard and, carried through the blocks on their topmasts, stretch: the bram-toppenant on the deck, and the bom-bram-topenants on the topsail. The boom-topenants are taken with the middle end of the boom leg, carried out on both sides of it, as shown in the figure, and pulled with grips at the heel of the boom.
The fore-braces are attached with the middle end to the top of the mainmast, are carried, as can be seen in the figure, and are pulled on the bollards of the mainmast. The main-braces are based between the blocks at the side of the poop and on the legs of the main-yard and extend through the side bollards. The main-contra-braces are based on top of the fore-braces between the blocks on the foremast and the yard legs and extend at the foremast. The main ends of the begin braces are taken by the rear main shrouds, and the running gears are passed through blocks on the yard legs and on the rear main shrouds and are attached to the tile strip at the side. Mars braces are attached at the middle end to the topmast, are carried into the shrouds, as shown in the figure, and are pulled on the deck. The fore- and main-braces are attached with the middle end to the gate or boom-brow-topmast and are carried into blocks at the ends of the yards and into blocks near the main end and stretch along the deck. Cruys-brams and all bom-brass are put on the ends of their yards, held as shown in the figure, and pulled on the deck.
