BEET
The presence of large amounts of sugar in beets was discovered by the French botanist Olivier de Serres back in 1575. But only in 1747, the German scientist Andreas Sigismund Markgraf was able to extract sugar from the root vegetable and achieve a solid consistency. And, since at that time the needs of Europe for sugar were fully satisfied by cane, only the Margrave’s student Charles Achard achieved success - 50 years later. Akhard grew sugar beets near Berlin, it was to the Prussian king Frederick - Wilhelm III - that he demonstrated his first sugar, and it was in Prussia that the first sugar factory was built. But the know-how was immediately adopted by the thrifty French, who did not want to continue paying through the nose for a Caribbean product. And in 1812, Napoleon was presented with the first sugar ingot. France became the main supplier of sugar in Europe; after a hundred years, the consumption of beet and cane sugar was almost equal. 
PALM
This variety is also called jaggery - from the Indian word jagri, converted from “sakara”, which exists in the language of one of the ancient peoples inhabiting India. The word “sugar” clearly came from him. And it is exactly like jaggery that unrefined jaggery can be purchased in Europe and the USA. Palm sugar is the congealed sap of the sugar palm, found mostly in Southeast Asia - India, Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Jaggery is distinguished from all other sugars by its color - darkened dull gold, delicate taste and bright smell, often with a strong molasses accent, which does not spoil it at all. You can buy palm sugar either in soft form, almost like honey, or in hard form - in bars. However, for Russia this is still a super exotic product. 
MALT
The name speaks for itself: malt sugar is made from malt, a fermentation product of sprouted, dried and ground grains. Cereals suitable for sugar production vary widely. In Eastern countries, for example, in Japan, malt sugar is produced from starch-rich millet and rice. Malt sugar is significantly inferior in sweetness to beet and cane sugar, perhaps this explains why traditional Japanese desserts are so neutral in taste. 
SORGHUM
Sweet sorghum, from the juice of which sorghum sugar is produced (the stems contain up to 18%), is also a cereal. Like malt sugar, the sorghum analogue is accepted in the East. In the Middle Kingdom, molasses is made from sweet sorghum - the so-called sorghum honey. In the northern states of the United States, during the Civil War, attempts were made to establish industrial production of sorghum sugar, but production turned out to be ineffective from an economic point of view. As it turned out, the plant juice contains too much mineral salts and gum, and the net yield of sugar in the form of crystals is relatively small. 
MAPLE
If there is maple syrup, then there must be maple sugar. The national Canadian product was first mentioned in documents in 1760. It was about maples growing in Canada, which produce juice that is healthy and refreshing at the same time. And this juice turned out to be suitable for the production of sugar. Sugar-intensive maple species appeared on the territory North America two - sugar and silver, and both went into use in ancient times, when the Indians figured out how to process maple sap. They poured it into pots, left it in the cold, and by morning they received solid sugar, which they called sweet ice. Maple sugar has gained some popularity around the world, even coming to Russia, where it received the name “agorn” (from the German Ahorn - maple). But by now they have forgotten about American sugar. In America, the same technology is used to produce maple sugar on an industrial scale as for processing sugar cane.History of sugar, types of sugar by raw materials
Cane sugar, beet sugar, maple sugar, palm sugar, sorghum sugar, nutritional value of sugar, myths about sugar
Section 1. Sugar production and technology.
Sugar -This common name for sucrose. Cane and beet sugar (granulated sugar, refined sugar) is an important food product. Regular sugar (sucrose) refers to carbohydrates, which are considered valuable nutrients that provide the body with the necessary energy. Starch also belongs to carbohydrates, but its absorption by the body occurs relatively slowly. Sucrose is quickly broken down in the digestive tract into glucose and fructose, which then enter the bloodstream.
Sugar production and technology
Glucose provides more than half of the body's energy expenditure. Normal blood glucose concentration is maintained at 80-120 milligrams of sugar per 100 milliliters (0.08~0.12%). Glucose has the ability to maintain the barrier function of the liver against toxic substances due to its participation in the formation of so-called paired sulfuric and glucuronic acids in the liver. That is why taking sugar orally or injecting glucose into a vein is recommended for some liver diseases and poisoning.
History of sugar
The birthplace of sugar is India. In Europe, sugar was known to the Romans. Brown sugar grains were made from sugar cane juice and were imported to Europe from India. Egypt, a province of the Roman Empire, was an intermediary in trade with India. Sugarcane later appeared in Sicily and southern Spain, but with the fall of the Roman Empire this tradition was lost.
The history of sugar in Russia begins around the 11th-12th centuries. When sugar was first imported, only the prince and his entourage could taste it. The first “sugar chamber” in Russia was opened by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century, and raw materials for sugar were imported from abroad. In 1809, the production of sugar from domestic raw materials - sugar beets - began to be established.
Brown sugar- This is unrefined cane sugar.
Brown sugar consists of sugar crystals coated with cane molasses, which has a natural flavor and color. It is produced by boiling sugar syrup using a special technology. There are many varieties of brown sugar, which differ mainly in the amount of molasses they contain. Dark cane sugar has a more intense color and stronger molasses flavor than light cane sugar. Brown sugar is sometimes called "tea" or "coffee" sugar. Manufacturers position brown sugar as an elite, environmentally friendly gourmet product. While nutritionists note that unrefined sugar may contain unwanted impurities and has a high calorie content.
Cane sugar
The stalks of sugarcane, a plant that grew wild in India, were the initial raw materials for the extraction of sugar; In Europe, cane sugar became known even before our era as a medicine. Under Arab rule in the 9th century, sugarcane cultivation was established in Egypt, Sicily and southern Spain; At the end of the 10th century, the production of sugar in the form of conical heads was already carried out in Venice, but sugar became more widespread in Europe only during the Crusades. In 1490, Columbus brought sugar cane from the Canary Islands to Santo Domingo (Haiti), and from that time its culture in the West Indies and Central America began to develop rapidly and colonial granulated sugar began to cover the general need for it in Europe, in which, Since the 16th century, refineries have appeared to purify it. However, sugar remained a luxury item for a long time, until the 19th century. Most of Sugar consumed in the modern world is made from sugar cane.
Sugarcane is a perennial herb and is cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. Its cultivation requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to fully exploit the plant's enormous growth potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, the stems are cut into pieces and quickly transported to the processing plant. Here the raw materials are either crushed and the juice is extracted with water, or the sugar is extracted by diffusion. The juice is then purified with slaked lime (defecation) and heated to kill the enzymes. The resulting liquid syrup is passed through a series of evaporators, after which the remaining water is removed by evaporation in a vacuum container. The supersaturated solution then crystallizes to form sugar crystals. The molasses, which is a by-product of the process, and the fibers from the stalks, known as cake, are burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. Raw sugar crystals have a sticky brown coating and can be eaten as is, or they can be bleached with sulfur dioxide or carbonic acid (saturation) to produce a white product.
Beet sugar
In 1747, Andreas Margraf published in his memoirs of the Berlin Academy of Sciences his observations about the possibility of extracting sugar from beet roots (beta alba) and even indicated the procedure for working, which in essential features has been preserved to this day. The honor of setting up the first plant for extracting sugar from beets belongs to Margraf's student Achard, but the first experiments on a factory scale were unsuccessful and the production of beet sugar was put on solid ground in 1806 by Napoleon (distributing land for cultivating beets, establishing schools in factories, issuing bonuses) , who saw in it one of the means to maintain the continental system and independence from English imports. The high price of colonial cane sugar (about 8 francs per kilogram) made the production of local sugar profitable, and at the same time the production improvements introduced in France (graters, hydraulic presses, straining through bone char, heating and thickening the juice with steam) led to its rapid development: in 1828, 103 factories were already operating in France and delivering up to 5 million kg of sugar. The methods developed in France were then transferred to Germany and other European countries. In Russia, the first plant for the extraction of beet juice, mainly for processing into alcohol, was founded by Major General Blankenigel in 1802 in the Tula province, then a sugar factory was established by Ivan Akimovich Maltsov in 1809, the further development of Russian beet sugar production owes much to the family of counts Bobrinsky . In 1897, 236 factories operated in Russia, the productivity of which was up to 45 million poods per year.
Sugar beets are biennial plants; a fleshy root crop is formed in the first year. Cultivated in temperate regions with moderate rainfall and requires fertile soil. The harvest is harvested mechanically in the fall, with the tops and adhering soil removed. Root vegetables can be stored without loss for several weeks before being sent to a processing plant. Here the beets are washed and cut, the sugar syrup is extracted hot water by diffusion. The juice supplied from the diffusers passes through measuring cups, and usually from 100 kg of beets, 120 kg of juice is obtained, which, to separate from entrained pulp particles, is passed through filters made of wood shavings or coarse fabric or through metal sieves. After that, the juice is heated to 60 ° C in reshuffers, that is, in boilers equipped with tubes through which the juice passes, and steam is released into the space between the tubes; the juice then enters the defecator(s) and is purified several times with lime (defecation) and then carbonic acid (saturation). The chemical process of defecation and saturation consists in the fact that when heated, lime displaces weak bases into the sediment, produces insoluble salts with dibasic organic acids, decomposes invert sugar, produces insoluble compounds with leguminous protein substances, and, finally, its excess is carried away into the sediment present in the juice suspension; in this case, alkaline bases, freed from salts of organic acids, combine with sucrose, forming alkaline saccharates, and excess lime simultaneously produces lime saccharate; At the same time, some of the nitrogenous substances begin to decompose with the release of ammonia. The subsequent treatment of defecated juice with carbonic anhydride is aimed mainly at removing excess lime, which, precipitating in the form of carbon dioxide, produces further clarification and discoloration of the juice, as well as decomposing alkali and lime sugars; Saturation is stopped when the alkalinity of the juice is known (part of the alkalinity depends on the presence of carbonic alkali salts), in order to thereby protect the juice from decomposition under the influence of microorganisms. In addition, a very large number of means and methods have been proposed for purifying juice as a replacement for lime and carbonic acid, but all these proposals have not acquired practical significance.
The juice purified by these means is so freed from non-sugar that it can be brought to a concentration by simple evaporation at which sugar crystals will precipitate from the boiled mass. The condensed juice, or syrup, called massecuite (Hutfüllmasse), when filtered, is subjected to final boiling in vacuum devices. The separation of crystals from molasses is carried out using centrifuges, putting either a hot, just released massecuite into the rotating drum of the centrifuge (hot whitening), or allowing it to cool (cold whitening), and it solidifies into a solid mass, which is necessary to give it homogeneity, with the purpose of uniform loading of the centrifuge is to stir, which is produced in devices - waste file mixers. A centrifuge drum filled with massecuite throws out molasses through the mesh walls (the first outflow) and retains sugar crystals, which are whitened either first by clears, or directly by steam, washing the molasses retained on the crystals; this part of the flowing liquid is usually collected separately (second drainage). At the end of the whitening process, the sugar crystals that make up the so-called white sand, or the first product, are removed from the centrifuge and dried by passing through rotating cylinders through which a stream of heated air passes. With hot whitening, up to 50% of the first product is obtained from 100 parts of the filler, with cold whitening up to 53-55%, although somewhat less pure. White sand contains 99-99.8% sugar. The juices obtained from the first product are processed and separated from the molasses. Thus, a second product is obtained, or the first yellow sand, containing 90-95% sugar. Molasses, separated from the second product, after processing gives a third product, with a sugar content of 85 to 90% (second yellow sand). Usually, after the crystals of the third product are isolated, molasses is obtained, containing so much non-sugar that it is called black, or fodder, and goes to large quantities as a material for distillation, as well as for livestock feed.
Maple sugar is a traditional sugar in the eastern provinces of Canada, extracted since the 17th century from the sap of sugar maple trees, for which the trunks are drilled in February and March and then sap containing up to 3% sugar begins to flow out of the holes. The flow of sap continues for several weeks, so that a large amount of it is obtained from each tree. The sap is evaporated to create “maple syrup,” and then sugar is extracted from the syrup (up to 3-6 pounds annually from each tree). It is used by the local population instead of ordinary cane sugar. The maple syrup industry generated more than $100 million in revenue in 1989.
Palm sugar or jagre - obtained in South and Southeast Asia, the Moluccas and many islands of the Indian Ocean from the sweet juice that flows in large quantities from cuts on young flower ears various types palm trees In India, on the Coromandel Coast, on the Maldives and Moluccas Islands, and partly in Sri Lanka, it is obtained mainly from the sap of the coconut palm (the so-called coconut sugar). One coconut palm can produce more than 250 kg of sap per year, containing up to 20% sucrose, and with skillful use, without too much violence on the trees, you can get good yields of sap for many years. Sugar obtained from palm sap by evaporation is molded in coconut shells and marketed in the form of round loaves. Its consumption is limited primarily to places of production. Palm sugar is also extracted from the date palm, areng and other palm trees.
The extraction of sugar from the stalks of sweet sorghum (Sorghum saccharatum (L.) Pers.) has been practiced since ancient times in China, and later became widespread in the northern states of the United States during civil war, when the supply of cane sugar by sea was blocked by England, but sorghum sugar was not widely used, since sorghum did not live up to expectations as a convenient raw material for sugar production. This is explained by the fact that although sorghum juice is very rich in sucrose, extracting the latter from it in its pure form is associated with significant difficulties due to the high content of mineral salts, gummy substances and invert sugar in the juice; As a result, the yields of pure crystalline sugar are very small. To extract sugar from sorghum, the diffusion method is also used. Sorghum cutting contains 5-11% regular and 1-9% invert sugar; the composition of one massecuite, for example, was as follows: sucrose 53.5%, invert sugar - 13.6%, organic matter (not sugar) - 5.1%, ash - 4.7% and water - 23.1%. Sorghum is used for distillation with much greater benefits. However, sorghum for sugar production retains its agricultural potential because sorghum can be cultivated in dry areas where growing other sugar crops is either impossible or unprofitable. Also, sweet sorghum does not require special machines and special cultivation techniques; the same methods and mechanisms that are used for corn are suitable for its cultivation.
Sugar production technology
The main raw materials for sugar production are sugar beets, which contain 15-22% sucrose, and sugar cane.
The production of granulated sugar begins with the preparation of sugar beets. Root vegetables are washed, cleaned of impurities and crushed into chips. Then the chips are heated with water to 70-75 °C. In this case, the diffusion of soluble substances into water occurs with the formation of a dark gray diffusion juice, which, in addition to sucrose, contains other substances.
Purification of diffusion juice involves treating it with lime and then carbon dioxide. The first process is called defecation, and the second - saturation. During defecation, sucrose partially reacts with lime, forming saccharates, which precipitate. After defecation, the juice becomes light yellow in color with a flaky sediment. Then the juice is subjected to saturation - the conversion of lime into insoluble calcium carbonate and the decomposition of sugars to sucrose. After double carbonation, the juice is filtered and treated with sulfur dioxide (sulfitation). As a result of this treatment, the juice becomes light yellow, transparent, containing about 14% sucrose.
Sugar is isolated from purified juice by crystallization. To do this, the juice is evaporated to a content of 65% dry matter. The resulting syrup is treated with adsorbents, filtered and sulfated again. Transparent, colorless condensed syrup enters vacuum devices, where further evaporation of water and crystallization of sugar occurs. As a result of this, a thick mass (7.5% water) is formed - massecuite of the first crystallization and intercrystalline liquid - green molasses. To separate the latter, the massecuite is processed in centrifuges. The sugar crystals settled there are washed with a small amount of water, steamed and centrifuged. This separates out the so-called white molasses, which contains water-soluble sugar crystals. It is collected and sent to vacuum devices for re-boiling.
Green molasses is also boiled in a vacuum apparatus and a massecuite of the second crystallization is obtained. If the sugar content in the massecuite molasses of the second crystallization remains high, then the massecuite of the third crystallization is obtained from it. Massecuite molasses of the last crystallization - molasses - is used to obtain ethyl alcohol, citric acid, amino acids and for other purposes.
The resulting sugar from the centrifuges is sent for drying. It is then passed through a magnetic catcher, sorted and packaged.
Refined sugar is obtained from granulated sugar. For production, pure beet sugar and raw cane sugar are used. It is dissolved in hot water until the syrup becomes thick. Then it is treated with adsorbents, ion exchangers (artificial resins) and filtered. The filtered syrup enters a vacuum apparatus, where it is condensed into massecuite and centrifuged. To ensure the whiteness of refined massecuite, a suspension of ultramarine (dye) is added to it. of blue color).
They produce cast and pressed refined sugar. When receiving cast refined sugar, hot massecuite is poured into cone-shaped molds 60 m high, cooled slowly, and klers (a saturated solution of pure sugar) is poured on top. In this case, the clair, as it flows out of the bottom of the mold, washes away the molasses from the sucrose crystals and carries away its remains. Washing with clears is carried out several times. The sugar is then dried, knocked out of the molds and split into pieces.
The process of making cast refined sugar is quite labor-intensive. Most often they produce pressed refined sugar. During its production, massecuite is whitened in centrifuges. The resulting refined porridge (2% moisture) is pressed. The compressed bars are dried and, after cooling, split into pieces correct form. By adjusting the moisture content of the refined porridge, the strength of the sugar can be changed.
To obtain pressed refined sugar with cast properties, more moisture is left in the refined porridge (3-3.5%), for instant raffinate, on the contrary, less (1.5%).
Sugar assortment
Crystalline sugar is the type of sugar most familiar to consumers around the world. It is granulated sugar consisting of crystals white. Depending on the crystal size, granulated sugar provides the unique properties of granulated sugar. These properties are in demand among food companies according to their specific needs. In addition to the size of the crystals, special additives add variety to the types of sugar.
Regular Sugar. Sugar commonly used in household use. This is exactly the white sugar that most cookbook recipes refer to. This same sugar is most widely used by food industries.
Fruit Sugar. Finer and higher quality than regular sugar. Used in dry mixes such as gelatin desserts, pudding mixes and dry drinks. The high degree of crystal uniformity prevents smaller crystals from separating or settling to the bottom of the package, an important quality of good dry mixes.
Pekarsky (Bakers Special). The crystal size is even smaller. As the name already implies, this type of sugar was created specifically for industrial baking.
Ultrafine (Superfine, Ultrafine, Bar Sugar, Caster Sugar). Smallest crystal size. This sugar is ideal for pies and meringues with a very fine texture. Due to its easy solubility, ultrafine sugar is also used to sweeten fruits and frozen drinks.
Confectionery powder (Confectioners Sugar, Icing Sugar). Confectionery powder is based on regular granulated sugar, ground into powder and sifted through a fine sieve. Approximately 3% cornstarch is added to prevent sticking. The powder is available in varying degrees of grinding. Used for glazing, in confectionery production and in the production of whipped cream.
Coarse Sugar. Sugar with crystal size larger than regular sugar. A special processing method makes this sugar resistant to changes during high temperatures. This property is important in the production of fondants, confectionery and liqueurs.
Sanding Sugar. Sugar with the largest crystals. It is used mainly in the baking and confectionery industries for sprinkling products. The edges of the large crystals reflect light, giving the product a sparkling appearance.
Brown sugar consists of sugar crystals coated in molasses syrup with a natural flavor and color. It is produced either by special boiling of sugar syrup, or by mixing white sugar with molasses.
There are many varieties of unrefined sugar, which differ mainly in the amount of molasses (molasses) they contain. Dark brown sugar has a more intense color and stronger molasses flavor than light brown sugar.
Light brown sugar is used in the same way as white sugar. Dark unrefined sugar has a rich aroma, which makes it a specific additive to various products.
There are several types of liquid sugar that are used in the food industry. Liquid sugar itself is a solution of white sugar and can be used wherever crystalline sugar is.
Sugar with the addition of molasses is an amber-colored liquid. Can be used to give products a specific aroma.
Finally, invert syrup. Inversion or chemical breakdown of sucrose produces a mixture of glucose and fructose. This sugar is used only in industrial purposes.
Sugar quality requirements
Granulated sugar is a bulk product consisting of crystals ranging in size from 0.2 to 2.5 mm, with clearly defined edges. It should be non-sticky and dry to the touch, white with a shine, sweet taste, free of foreign tastes and odors.
Solubility in water is complete, the solution should be transparent. The moisture content of granulated sugar should be no more than 0.14%, sucrose content - no less than 99.75, reducing substances - no more than 0.05 (on a dry basis), ash - no more than 0.03%, color in Stammer units - no more than 0.8.
In sugar used for industrial processing, the allowed content of sucrose (on a dry basis) is no less than 99.55%, reducing substances - no more than 0.065, ash - no more than 0.05, humidity - no more than 0.15%.
According to organoleptic indicators, refined sugar must meet the following requirements: white color, without spots, a slightly bluish tint is allowed, the taste of dry sugar and aqueous solution is sweet, without foreign tastes and odors, complete solubility, the solution is transparent, a subtle bluish tint is allowed.
Physico-chemical indicators, depending on the type of sugar, are standardized as follows: moisture content (0.1-0.4%), sucrose (no less than 99.9%), reducing substances (no more than 0.03%), crumbs (no more 1.0-2.5%), complete solubility (not earlier than 1-8 minutes), strength (not less than 15-40 kgf/cm2).
Packaging and storage of sugar
Sugar retains its original properties only when reliable protection from the influence of external conditions during storage, transportation and sales in trade, which must be ensured primarily by its packaging. This issue is most reliably resolved only for refined sugar, which is packaged at the factory in consumer packaging. Sugar is packed in 50 kg (net) bags in clean new and used fabric bags of categories I and II; in fabric bags with plastic and paper liners; bags made of material with a viacose base, polypropylene. Granulated sugar intended for transportation by road may be packed in 40 kg bags in five- or six-layer paper bags with one or two laminated layers. The main container for bulk granulated sugar is still fabric bags. The bags should be tight so that sugar crystals do not spill out. However, burlap does not protect sugar from dust and other contaminants. From the material of the bag, fire and lint get into the sugar. Burlap has a characteristic odor associated with its processing. The bags are the most significant site of sugar infection. In addition, the fabric gets wet easily. Increasing requirements for product quality leads to the need for a rational solution to the issue of sugar packaging.
The industry produces refined granulated sugar in large packaging in bags and in consumer packaging. Unrefined granulated sugar is mainly supplied to trade in bulk form. It is packaged in consumer packaging at retail establishments at points of consumption. In large cities and industrial centers, specialized enterprises have been created where granulated sugar is packaged mechanically in 0.5-1.0 kg bags in paper (two- and single-layer) or plastic bags.
Lump refined sugar is produced mainly in consumer packaging and some packed in 40 kg fabric bags. For refined sugar in bags, higher fines content standards are established than in packs (GOST 22-78 with amendment No. 2). In bags, refined sugar becomes contaminated, the edges of the pieces become chipped, and fines and powder form. Refined sugar, packaged in packs and paper boxes with a net weight of 0.5 and 1 kg, is placed in external containers - in wooden and plywood boxes weighing up to 30-35 kg or wrapped in wrapping paper in the form of bags of 20 kg. There is experience in packaging packs of lump sugar in bags of 20 pieces using automatic machines. using shrink film. Bulk refined sugar is also packaged in boxes lined with paper. The net weight of the packages of each individual batch of sugar shipped must be the same, the container must be uniform. The method for determining net mass is according to GOST 26521-85. Packaged sugar is marked with non-staining paint in accordance with the requirements of the current standard.
The storage properties of sugar depend on its composition. Sucrose is resistant to normal air and temperature conditions within 0-30 °C, in its pure form it is not moistened at relative air humidity of up to 90% and above. However, sucrose must be reliably protected from contact with free moisture, since it is not able to bind moisture and has high solubility. Due to the higher content of impurities, granulated sugar is more hygroscopic than refined sugar. At the same temperature (20 °C), the water sorption curve for granulated sugar has an inflection at a relative air humidity of about 70%, and for refined sugar - 85%. At higher relative humidity, sugar absorbs moisture, and at lower relative humidity, it dries out. In a room where the relative air humidity is 80-90%, granulated sugar becomes noticeably moist.
Changes in the moisture content of sugar during storage cause various defects. In the presence of free moisture, granulated sugar becomes sticky, loses its flowability, clumps, and lump refined sugar loses its strength. Humidification stimulates the development of microbiological processes, as a result of which sugar decomposition products accumulate, pH decreases, and sucrose inversion occurs. This increases the hygroscopicity of sugar, making it unsuitable for further storage. When moisture evaporates from damp sugar, the crystals grow together and form a dense, colored mass that is difficult to separate from burlap or other container material.
When storing sugar, moisture may condense on the surface of the container due to changes in ambient temperature. This most often happens when warmer, humid air enters a warehouse with a low temperature. The moisture capacity of air upon contact with cold sugar decreases, and excess moisture is released in the form of dew. Sugar stored in containers made of vapor-proof film materials can also be moistened during temperature fluctuations due to moisture evaporating from the surface of the crystals and condensing in the fastest cooling surface layers of sugar.
There are certain rules for warehouse ventilation, taking into account temperature and humidity conditions. Maintaining an even temperature is one of the most important requirements when storing sugar.
Lump refined sugar should not be stored at temperatures below 0 °C. Sharp cooling causes moisture to move in the pores of refined sugar from the inner layers to the outer layers, in which it condenses and dissolves the sugar. After the moisture evaporates, growths of small crystals form on the surface of the pieces, deteriorating their presentation.
Store sugar in dry, clean, well-ventilated warehouses. When storing sugar, product proximity must be observed. Storage together with strong-smelling products is not allowed.
In warehouses, sugar in bags and boxes is stacked on wooden racks, pallets or floors covered with tarpaulin, paper, etc. The height of the stack of lump refined sugar, depending on the type of packaging and the strength of the sugar, is 2-5 m, and for powdered sugar that can cake - 1.8 m. In the most unfavorable conditions, sugar is located in the lower rows of the stack. Relative air humidity at the level of the bottom row should not exceed 70% for granulated sugar and 80% for refined sugar.
In the bulk method, granulated sugar is stored in reinforced concrete or metal vertical cylindrical containers (silos). Sugar in silos should not lose its flowability and become cemented. Therefore, sugar of high purity, low color, with a moisture content of 0.02-0.06% is poured into long-term bulk storage; its crystals must be uniform and not contain fractions with crystals less than 0.2-0.3 mm. Microbiological processes should not develop in it. During storage, maintain a constant temperature of 20-22 °C and relative humidity air - 60-65%.
Since 1987, GOST 26907-86 has been put into effect, which sets the deadlines long-term storage(in years): granulated sugar in heated warehouses - up to 8, in unheated ones - 1.5-4; refined sugar - up to 8 and 5, respectively; granulated sugar in silos - no more than 2. The air temperature in heated warehouses for long-term storage of packaged sugar should not be lower than 12 °C.
Excessive sugar consumption
Long term consumption of sugar and intravenous administration concentrated glucose solutions were considered effective means for various diseases of the cardiovascular, nervous and digestive systems.
IN last years researchers are inclined to limit the use of this product. It has been established that in old age, excessive sugar consumption contributes to disruption of fat metabolism, leads to an increase in the concentration of cholesterol and sugar in the blood, and disrupts cell function.
The increase in blood cholesterol is influenced by the nature of microcarbohydrates taken with food: lactose is most active in this regard, compared to sucrose, which in turn contributes more to hypercholesterolemia than glucose. An increase in the concentration of sugar in the blood, changing the permeability of the arterial wall, creates favorable conditions for the deposition of lipids in it and increases the adhesion of platelets.
It is no coincidence that nutritionists insist that in the diet of older people, especially those who are prone to obesity, the amount of sugar should not exceed 15% of the total daily amount of carbohydrates.
Cardiologists argue that as a result of increasing caloric intake due to sugar, people who do not engage in physical labor create conditions for excess body weight and the rapid development of atherosclerosis.
The point is that easily digestible but undigested carbohydrates consumed in excess pass from the intestines into the bloodstream and irritate (and if this is repeated often, they can disable) the insular apparatus of the pancreas.
Under normal conditions, the pancreatic hormone insulin acts as a regulator of carbohydrate metabolism in the body. Thanks to insulin, sugar is distributed in the liver and muscles in the form of glycogen, and some of the sugar is converted into fat. The body's need for carbohydrates in middle age is 400-500 grams, and in the elderly it is 100 grams less, that is, 300-400 grams.
It should be borne in mind that carbohydrates are not only sugar, but also honey, fruits, flour products, and cereals. The so-called simple sugars (cane, beet, grape) are easily soluble in water and are quickly absorbed into the blood. To slow down the transition of sugar from the blood to the tissues, it is recommended to replace refined carbohydrates (sweets, confectionery, etc.) with starch.
Sugar substitutes
Instead of sugar, you can use honey or fruits that contain both fructose and glucose. In liver cells, fructose is phosphorylated and then broken down into trioses, which are either used for fatty acid synthesis, which can lead to obesity, as well as increased triglyceride levels (which in turn increases the risk of atherosclerosis), or used for glycogen synthesis ( is also partially converted to glucose during gluconeogenesis). Fruits and berries are especially beneficial to the body due to their content of vitamins, organic acids and mineral salts. Bee honey also contains vitamins, organic acids, salts, enzymes, proteins and has a beneficial effect on the body to the same extent, but the sucrose content (up to 2%) and high calorie content also require limiting its consumption to 50-60 grams per day. It should also be noted that honey is an allergen.
Sugar substitutes (xylitol, sorbitol, aspartame), which are sweet and appearance differ little from table sugar and can be used in the treatment of obesity. To meet a person's need for sweets, 40 grams of xylitol per day is enough. However, there is evidence that continuous use of xylitol in old age can accelerate the course of the atherosclerotic process.
Thus, the value of sugar as a food product leaves no doubt. You just need to remember the old proverb: “Too much food is illness and misfortune.”
But as J. Labruyère wrote: “Intemperance turns food intended to preserve life into a deadly poison.”
In a bottom anti-landing mine, installed in coastal water near its bank of a river (reservoir) at a depth of up to two meters, a plug of pressed sugar is used as a fuse. Having installed such a mine, they open the lid that blocked the water from accessing the plug. In a maximum of two hours (the time greatly depends on the temperature of the water), the sugar plug will dissolve, causing the mine to be armed. Such a device allows you to set up a minefield of such mines, without the danger of being blown up by mines that have just been installed.
Refined sugar in the form of cubes was invented in 1843 in the Czech Republic. The inventor, the Swiss Jacob Christoph Rad, was the manager of a sugar factory in Dačice. On the site where the sugar factory was located, there is now a monument - a snow-white cube, symbolizing refined sugar.
Experiments on rats have shown that consuming sugar is addictive, with “the changes produced by sugar in the brain very similar to those that occur under the influence of cocaine, morphine or nicotine.”
It will be possible to set fire to a piece of sugar if you pour a little ash, for example, tobacco ash, onto the ignition site, since the latter contains lithium salts that catalyze the combustion of sucrose.
Refined sugar (1cm cube) is completely dissolved in a glass of 60°C water for 11-24 seconds without stirring the water. (during testing GOST 12577-67)
Granulated sugar is packaged in bags weighing 900 g, 1 kg, bags 2.5; 5; 10; 50 kg
Chemical formula sugar C12H22O11.
Raw sugar is a product of cane or beet processing in the form of individual crystals, consisting mainly of sucrose of less high purity than granulated sugar, and not intended for direct consumption. Sucrose content is from 95 to 99.55%, color: from yellowish to yellow-brown, the crystal is dull, covered with a molasses film.
But before you panic, it’s worth figuring out what is known about sugar, and whether this product is actually so harmful that it needs to be completely excluded from your diet.
Is it true that sugar is bad for your health?
Based on the imaginary harmfulness of sugar, it turns out that you need to completely stop using it. In particular, nutritionists are alarmed by the so-called hidden form of sugar, which is hidden in prepared foods. In fact, a person has to consume sugar that is invisible to the eye, therefore, there is much more of it in the diet than the body needs.
When a person often has to drink carbonated sweet water, eat a lot of sweets, while ignoring healthy foods, it is not surprising that in a few years he will be overcome by problems of the gastrointestinal tract and, probably, extra pounds. So, we can confidently say that if you eat right, don’t overeat, your main diet consists of healthy foods, then sometimes you need to treat yourself to a sweet dessert, it improves your mood.
Is it true that the body gets most of its sugar from sweets and other sweets?
Some people believe that the main source of sugar is sweets and avoid eating them. In fact, sugar enters the body not only from sweets, but also from all kinds of drinks and sauces. For example, one tablespoon of tomato sauce contains a teaspoon of sugar.
Is it true that the sugar found in sweets is significantly different from the sugar found in fruits?
In fact, all sweet fruits contain sugar similar in composition to that found in sweets. Another thing is that its concentration in fruits and berries is lower. When entering the body, it is able to bring with it useful vitamins, minerals and minerals. Meanwhile, the body burns sugar that has to be obtained from buns and sweets more slowly. Because of this, your blood sugar levels become higher, as does your blood pressure.
Is it true that eating sugar causes diabetes?
There is no doubt that diabetes and sugar are linked. But the most common type of diabetes is type 2, which is usually caused by overeating any foods, including those containing sugar. The disease develops according to this pattern: a large amount of food that the body consumes requires the release of large amounts of glucose, and, consequently, insulin.
The disease does not appear overnight; it is a long process. Over time, cells become unable to absorb excessive quantity insulin, causing blood sugar levels to rise sharply. This is how diabetes is formed. And although diabetes is called diabetes, sugar consumption is not the main cause of the disease.
Sugar has both its pros and cons.
Sugar is a highly purified, easily digestible carbohydrate, especially refined sugar. Sugar has no biological value other than calories. Sugar has a high energy value; it provides a lot of empty calories that would be worth getting from other foods that, in addition to calories, would also provide vitamins, minerals, etc. Sugar is harmful to teeth because bacteria contained in the human mouth turns it into acids, which destroy tooth enamel and contribute to the appearance of caries.
Sugar makes people happy. During attacks of grief, a person usually eats something sweet, after which the pancreas produces insulin, which in turn leads to the release of serotonin, the hormone of happiness. Sugar gives energy. When entering the body, sugar is converted into glucose, which provides energy.
Sugar is the main ingredient in confectionery products. Sugar is added to various drinks - tea, coffee, cocoa. Sugar serves as a preservative for various products from fruits and berries - preserves, jams, jellies.
For diseases whose treatment requires a low-carbohydrate diet, various sugar substitutes are used in food.
Sources
Wikipedia – The Free Encyclopedia, WikiPedia
studentbank.ru - Free essays
ukrsugar.kiev.ua - Sugar of Ukraine
health.obozrevatel.com - Observer
Sugar is a high-calorie food product. According to statistics, a person annually consumes about sixty kilograms of this carbohydrate.
India is considered the birthplace of the product, where it has been known for about 2500 years. Brown grains were made from sugar cane and supplied to European countries from India. Egypt acted as an intermediary in this trade.
It first appeared in Russia around the 11th century. At that time, only the king and his entourage could consume this valuable product.
In 1802, sugar production from beets was established, first near Tula, and then in other regions of the country.
Based on their composition and properties, sugar is divided into disaccharides, monosaccharides and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides include fructose ( fruit sugar), dextrose or glucose (grape sugar) and galactose. Disaccharides include maltose (malt sugar), lactose (milk sugar) and sucrose (cane and beet sugar). The human intestine absorbs only monosaccharides.
Sugar is currently being produced different types– palm, cane, beet, white and brown. All its types are produced in purified and unrefined forms.
Refined (purified) sugar is steamed, turned into syrup and filtered, after which it turns into a beautiful white mass that is evaporated and then dried.
Honey is a special type of sugar. It contains about 20% water, trace elements and minerals and about 80% sugar in the form of sucrose, glucose and fructose.
The beneficial properties of brown sugar for the human body are explained by the content of molasses and a whole range of useful components in it. Although the calorie content of brown sugar is much higher than that of white sugar.
The following types of sugar are available: baking sugar, fruit sugar, regular sugar, crystal sugar, ultrafine sugar, coarse sugar, liquid sugar, confectioner's sugar, and casting sugar.
The most famous among consumers are granulated sugar and refined sugar. Lump and candy sugar are considered less popular. Most often they are served in restaurants with various drinks.
Nutritional value and calorie content of sugar
One hundred grams of this sweet product contains 99.8 g of mono- and disaccharides, 0.1 g of ash, 0.1 g of water, 3 mg of calcium, 0.3 mg of iron, 3 mg of potassium and 1 mg of sodium.
The calorie content of sugar is 399 kcal per 100 g of product. Scientists believe that women can consume no more than four teaspoons of this product daily, men - no more than six spoons, and children - one teaspoon per day.
Useful properties of sugar
An important benefit of sugar lies in its ability to activate blood circulation in the spinal cord and brain. There is an opinion among scientists that sugar brings undoubted benefits for diseases of the spleen and liver, since glucose supports the barrier function of the liver by participating in the synthesis of glucuronic and paired sulfuric acids.
This product indirectly increases the release of serotonin in the brain - the “good mood hormone”.
Sugar is considered one of the main sources of carbohydrates for the human body. The benefits of sugar include the fact that this sweet product saturates human muscles with the necessary energy, eliminates headache, relieves fatigue for a short period of time.
The harm of sugar
Speaking about the dangers of sugar, it should be remembered that this product can be internal and external.
The first is found in cereals, fruits, and some vegetables. Sugar of this type is not considered harmful, since it is retained in the human body in the amount necessary for normal life.
Extrinsic sugar is found in molasses, cakes, candies, drinks and other sweet foods. Consuming this type of sugar in large quantities is harmful to the body.
White refined sugar from beets or cane contains no fiber, vitamins, proteins or minerals. This product is 99% pure simple carbohydrate.
When sugar enters the body, it immediately enters the blood plasma. It is absorbed into the blood so quickly that it requires excessive concentrations of insulin. A sharp jump in insulin levels leads to a decrease in the concentration of this carbohydrate in the blood, resulting in hypoglycemia. This condition manifests itself in increased fatigue, loss of energy, slowness of movement, dizziness, anemia, low blood pressure, darkening of the eyes, hair loss, cyanosis.
The greatest harm of sugar is that it removes calcium and other minerals from the body, absorbs valuable nutrients, and depletes protein reserves. All this leads to the development of caries, rickets, osteoporosis - painful destruction of bones.
A sharp increase and sharp decrease in blood glucose concentration causes a feeling of false hunger.
Consumption of sufficient protein and excessive consumption of sugar leads to the development of obesity, and a lack of protein in the body and excessive consumption of sugar very often causes thinness.
Excessive sugar consumption reduces the strength of the immune system by seventeen times. London doctors discovered that this sweet product is able to partially change the bacteria on the mucous membrane of the intestinal walls. This leads to the breakdown of bile salts and the formation of substances that cause cancer.
Cardiovascular disease is caused by a combination of sugar and animal fats, which are deposited on the walls of arteries in the form of cholesterol.
Excessive consumption of sugar-containing foods increases the risk of developing diabetes, brain and blood diseases, and also contributes to premature aging. Carbohydrates are deposited in skin collagen, reducing its elasticity.
Eating sugar contributes to the formation of harmful free radicals, which kill the human body from the inside.
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Granulated sugar (sugar), coarse, per tablespoon, including the spelling "diabetes".
Crystal sugar , also called refined sugar, is the most used type of sugar. It is made from sugar cane (cane sugar) or sugar beets (beet sugar). At the same time, sugar beets have been known for only a few hundred years, but people have been growing sugar cane for about 10,000 years on the Melanesian Islands and Polynesia. Two thousand years later, it was also grown in India and Persia.
General information:
From Wikipedia: "Sugar- the common name for sucrose (12C * 11 H 2 O). Cane and beet sugar (granulated sugar, refined sugar) is an important food product. Regular sugar belongs to carbohydrates, which are considered valuable nutrients that provide the body with the necessary energy. Sucrose is quickly broken down in the digestive tract into glucose and fructose, which then enter the bloodstream. Glucose provides more than half of the body's energy expenditure. Normal blood glucose concentration is maintained at 80-120 milligrams of sugar per 100 milliliters (0.08~0.12%)."
Types of sugar by raw material:
- Cane sugar:"The stems of sugar cane, a plant that grew wild in India, were the original raw materials for the extraction of sugar; in Europe, cane sugar became known even before our era as a medicine. ... Most of the sugar consumed in the modern world is produced from "Massecuite (raw sugar) crystals have a sticky brown coating and can be eaten as is, or they can be bleached with sulfur dioxide or carbonic acid (saturation) to produce a white product."
- Beet sugar:"WITHSugar beet is cultivated in temperate regions with moderate rainfall and requires fertile soil. Root vegetables can be stored without loss for several weeks before being sent to a processing plant. Here the beets are washed and cut, and the sugar syrup is extracted with hot water by diffusion. ... Purified by these means, the juice is so freed from impurities that it can be brought by simple evaporation to such a concentration at which sugar crystals will precipitate from the boiled mass.”
- Maple Sugar:"Ttraditional sugar in the eastern provinces of Canada, extracted from the sap of sugar maple trees since the 17th century, for which the trunks are drilled in February and March, and then sap containing up to 3% sugar begins to flow out of the holes. The sap is evaporated to form maple syrup, and then sugar is extracted from the syrup. It is used by the local population instead of ordinary cane sugar. The maple syrup industry generated more than $100 million in revenue in 1989.".
- Palm sugar:"Palm sugar or jagre- is extracted from the sweet juice that flows in large quantities from cuts on the young flower cobs of various types of palm trees. In some areas it is obtained mainly from the sap of the coconut palm (called coconut sugar). Palm sugar is also extracted from the date palm, areng and other palm trees.
Release forms:
"Sugar is produced in the following types:
- granulated sugar
- pressed and lump
- powdered sugar
- candy sugar
- syrup
- in the past it was produced in the form of a “sugarloaf”
Excessive sugar consumption:
“In recent years, researchers have been inclined to the need to limit the consumption of this product. It has been established that in old age, excessive sugar consumption contributes to the disruption of fat metabolism, leads to an increase in the concentration of cholesterol and glucose in the blood, and disrupts the functions of cells.”
“Cardiologists say that as a result of increasing calorie intake due to sugar, people who do not engage in physical labor create conditions for excess body weight and the rapid development of atherosclerosis.”
