Philosophy of Ancient China. Confucianism. Taoism. Mohism. Legalism. Chinese philosophers Chinese thinker

Philosophy of ancient China: Lao Tzu's Book of Changes, the works of the thinkers Lao Tzu and Confucius - without these three things, the philosophy of ancient China would have resembled a building without a foundation - so great is their contribution to one of the most profound philosophical systems in the world.

The I Ching, that is, the Book of Changes, is one of the earliest monuments of the philosophy of Ancient China. The title of this book has a deep meaning, which lies in the principles of variability of nature and human life as a result of a natural change in the energies of Yin and Yang in the Universe. The Sun and Moon and other celestial bodies in the process of their rotation create all the diversity of the constantly changing celestial world. Hence the name of the first work of philosophy of Ancient China - “The Book of Changes”.

In the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought The Book of Changes occupies a special place. For centuries, almost every ancient Chinese thinker tried to comment on and interpret the content of the Book of Changes. This commentary and research activity, which lasted for centuries, laid the foundations of the philosophy of Ancient China and became the source of its subsequent development.

The most prominent representatives of the philosophy of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and studied issues for two millennia to come, were Lao Tzu and Confucius. They lived during the 5th–6th century. BC e. Although Ancient China also remembers other famous thinkers, the legacy of these two people is considered the foundation of the philosophical quest of the Celestial Empire.

Lao Tzu - "The Wise Old Man"

The ideas of Lao Tzu (real name - Li Er) are set out in the book “Tao Te Ching”, in our opinion - “The Canon of Tao and Virtue”. Lao Tzu left this work, consisting of exactly 5 thousand hieroglyphs, to a guard on the Chinese border when he went to the West at the end of his life. The significance of the Tao Te Ching for the philosophy of ancient China can hardly be overestimated.

The central concept that is discussed in the teachings of Lao Tzu is "Tao". The main meaning of the hieroglyph "Tao" in Chinese- this is “path”, “road”, but it can also be translated as “root cause”, “principle”.

“Tao” for Lao Tzu means the natural path of all things, the universal law of development and change in the world. “Tao” is the immaterial spiritual basis of all phenomena and things in nature, including humans.

These are the words with which Lao Tzu begins his Canon on Tao and Virtue: “You cannot know Tao only by talking about It. And it is impossible to call by a human name that beginning of heaven and earth, which is the mother of everything that exists. Only one freed from worldly passions is able to see Him. And the one who preserves these passions can only see His creations.”

Lao Tzu then explains the origin of the concept “Tao” he uses: “There is such a thing formed before the appearance of Heaven and Earth. It is independent and unshakable, changes cyclically and is not subject to death. She is the mother of everything that exists in the Celestial Empire. I don't know her name. I’ll call it Tao.”

Philosophy of ancient China: the hieroglyph “Dao” (ancient style) consists of two parts. The left side means “to go forward”, and the right side means “head”, “prime”. That is, the hieroglyph “Tao” can be interpreted as “to walk along the main road.” Lao Tzu also says: “Tao is immaterial. It is so foggy and uncertain! But in this fog and uncertainty there are images. It is so foggy and uncertain, but this fog and uncertainty hides things within itself. It is so deep and dark, but its depth and darkness conceals the smallest particles. These smallest particles are characterized by the highest reliability and reality."

Speaking about the style of government, the ancient Chinese thinker considers the best ruler to be the one about whom the people only know that this ruler exists. A little worse is the ruler whom people love and exalt. Even worse is a ruler who inspires fear in the people, and the worst are those whom people despise.

Great importance in the philosophy of Lao Tzu is given to the idea of ​​renouncing “worldly” desires and passions. Lao Tzu spoke about this in the Tao Te Ching using his own example: “All people indulge in idleness, and society is filled with chaos. I am the only one who is calm and does not expose myself to everyone. I look like a child who was not born into this idle world at all. All people are overwhelmed by worldly desires. And I alone gave up everything that was valuable to them. I’m indifferent to all this.”

Lao Tzu also cites the ideal of the perfectly wise man, emphasizing the achievement of "non-action" and modesty. “A wise person gives preference to non-action and remains at peace. Everything around him happens as if by itself. He has no attachment to anything in the world. He does not take credit for what he has done. Being the creator of something, he is not proud of what he created. And since he does not extol himself or boast, and does not strive for special respect for his person, he becomes pleasant to everyone.”

In his teachings, which had a great influence on the philosophy of ancient China, Lao Tzu encourages people to strive for Tao, talking about a certain blissful state that he himself achieved: “All Perfect people flock to the Great Tao. And you follow this Path! … I, being in inaction, wander in the boundless Tao. This is beyond words! Tao is the subtlest and most blissful."

Confucius: the immortal teacher of the Celestial Empire

The subsequent development of the philosophy of ancient China is associated with Confucius, the most popular Chinese thinker, whose teachings today have millions of admirers both in China and abroad.

The views of Confucius are set out in the book “Conversations and Judgments” (“Lun Yu”), which was compiled and published by his students based on the systematization of his teachings and sayings. Confucius created an original ethical and political teaching that guided the emperors of China as an official doctrine throughout almost the entire subsequent history of the Celestial Empire, until the communists gained power.

The basic concepts of Confucianism that form the foundation of this teaching are “ren” (humanity, philanthropy) and “li” (respect, ceremony). The basic principle of “ren” is don’t do to others what you wouldn’t want for yourself. “Li” covers a wide range of rules that essentially regulate all spheres of social life - from family to state relations.

Moral principles, social relations and problems of government are the main themes in the philosophy of Confucius.

In relation to knowledge and awareness of the surrounding world, Confucius mainly echoes the ideas of his predecessors, in particular Lao Tzu, even inferior to him in some ways. An important component of nature for Confucius is fate. The teachings of Confucius speak about fate: “Everything is initially predetermined by fate, and here nothing can be added or subtracted. Wealth and poverty, reward and punishment, happiness and misfortune have their own root, which cannot be influenced by the power of human wisdom.”

Analyzing the possibilities of knowledge and the nature of human knowledge, Confucius says that by nature people are similar to each other. Only the highest wisdom and extreme stupidity are unshakable. People begin to differ from each other due to their upbringing and as they acquire different habits.

Regarding the levels of knowledge, Confucius offers the following gradation: “The highest knowledge is the knowledge that a person has at birth. Below is the knowledge that is acquired in the process of studying. Even lower is the knowledge gained as a result of overcoming difficulties. The most insignificant is the one who does not want to learn an instructive lesson from difficulties.”

Philosophy of Ancient China: Confucius and Lao Tzu

Sima Qian, the famous ancient Chinese historian, describes in his notes how two philosophers once met each other.

He writes that when Confucius was in Xiu, he wanted to visit Lao Tzu to listen to his opinion regarding rituals (“li”).

Note, Lao Tzu said to Confucius, that those who taught the people have already died, and their bones have long since decayed, but their glory, nevertheless, has not yet faded. If circumstances favor the sage, he rides in chariots; and if not, he will begin to carry a load on his head, holding its edges with his hands.

The roots of the philosophy of Ancient China go back to the deep past and go back more than two and a half millennia. Having been isolated from the whole world for a long time, she was able to go her own way and acquire a number of unique traits.

Features of ancient Chinese philosophy

During the period of its formation and development, the philosophy of Ancient China, like culture as a whole, was not influenced by any other spiritual traditions. This is an absolutely independent philosophy, which has fundamental differences from the Western one.

The central theme of ancient Chinese philosophy is the idea of ​​harmony with nature and the general relationship between man and the cosmos. According to Chinese philosophers, the basis of all things is the trinity of the Universe, which includes heaven, earth and man. Moreover, all energy is permeated with the energy of “Qi”, which is divided into two principles - female yin and male yang.

The prerequisite for the development of ancient Chinese philosophy was the dominant religious and mythological worldview. In ancient times, the Chinese were confident that everything in the world happens according to the will of Heaven, the main ruler of which was Shang Di, the Supreme Emperor. He had numerous spirits and gods under his command, similar to birds, animals or fish.

Rice. 1. Chinese mythology.

TO characteristic features The philosophy of Ancient China should include:

• Ancestor cult. The Chinese believed that the dead have a great influence on the destinies of living people. Moreover, their impact was positive, since the tasks of the spirits included sincere concern for the living.
• Close interaction between the masculine and feminine principles. According to ancient beliefs, at the moment of the creation of all living things, the Universe was in a state of chaos. Only after the birth of the two spirits yin and yang did the ordering of the Universe take place and divide it into two unities - heaven and earth. The masculine yang principle took the sky under its protection, and the feminine yin principle took the earth under its protection.

Rice. 2. Yin and Yang.

Philosophical schools of Ancient China

Ancient Chinese philosophy was based on several teachings that had much in common and differed only in the details of their worldview. Two directions became the most important and significant in the culture of Ancient China - Confucianism and Taoism.

TOP 4 articleswho are reading along with this

• Confucianism . One of the most important areas of philosophy of Ancient China, which has not lost its relevance to this day. The founder of this school was the great Chinese thinker Confucius, who saw the meaning of life in the manifestation of humanism, nobility, as well as in strict observance of rituals and rules of behavior. At the center of his teaching was man, his behavior, moral and mental development. Confucianism also affected government. Ancient thinker had an extremely negative attitude towards the imposition of strict laws, believing that they would still be violated. Reasonable government can only be carried out on the basis of personal example.

Confucius's childhood was very difficult. After the loss of their breadwinner, the family lived in terrible poverty, and the boy had to work hard to help his mother. However, thanks to a good education, perseverance and hard work, he managed to make a successful career in public service, and then move on to teaching.

• Taoism . A popular ancient Chinese teaching, founded by the philosopher Lao Tzu. Tao is the path, the universal beginning and the universal end. According to the teachings of Lao Tzu, the universe is a source of harmony, and due to this, every living being is beautiful only in its natural state. The main idea of ​​Taoism is non-action. A person will only gain freedom and happiness when he lives in harmony with nature, away from the bustle of the world, abandoning material values ​​and living in simplicity.

Rice. 3. Lao Tzu.

• Legalism . The founder of the doctrine is considered to be the Chinese thinker Xun Tzu. According to his teachings, management of man, society and the state is possible only on the basis of total order and control. Only in this way can one suppress the dark side in a person and determine the correct existence in society.
• Mohism . The school got its name in honor of the teacher Mo-Ji. Mohism is based on the idea of ​​love, duty, mutual benefit and equality of all people. Each person must strive not only for his own good: he must in every possible way help his neighbors achieve it.

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While studying the topic “Philosophy of Ancient China,” we briefly learned the most important things about the philosophy of Ancient China. We found out when the origin of ancient Chinese teachings began, what prerequisites were for their development, what their main features were.

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· Introduction.

China is one of the oldest civilized states in the world. In the distant past, four thousand years ago, following the birth of the slave system, the history of the development of Chinese philosophy begins. Philosophical ideas in China, originating in the depths of centuries, are extremely rich in content and are a huge storehouse of ideas in the history of knowledge of all mankind.

· The Origin of Philosophy in China.

In the Shan-Yin era (XVIII-XII centuries BC), the religious-mythological worldview was dominant.

One of the distinctive features of Chinese myths was the zoomorphic nature of the gods and spirits acting in them. Many of the ancient Chinese deities had a clear resemblance to animals, birds or fish, and were half-animal - half-human. The ancient Chinese believed that everything in the world depends on the predestination of heaven and that the “will of heaven” is comprehended through fortune telling, as well as omens. Religious and mythological ideas sanctified the system of domination of the tribal nobility. The sovereign, the ruler spoke before his subjects as the son of heaven.

The most important element of ancient Chinese religion was the cult of ancestors, which was based on the recognition of the influence of the spirits of the dead on the life and fate of descendants. This cult also included the veneration of mythical heroes of antiquity. Myths portrayed them as great benefactors of humanity. The veneration of ancestors was also adapted to strengthen the position of the clan nobility. The ancient Chinese religion was also characterized by sacrifices to the spirits of nature and ancestors. The supreme mediator between spirits and people was the sovereign. Only he could make sacrifices to the spirits of heaven and earth; sacrifices to the ancestors were left to noble people.

Mythology also had its own explanation of the origin of the world and nature. In ancient times, when there was neither heaven nor earth, the Universe was a dark, formless chaos. According to one myth, two spirits were born in the formless darkness - yin And yang who set about ordering the world. Subsequently, these spirits separated: the spirit yang began to rule the sky, and the spirit yin- earth. According to another myth, the mythical first man Pan-gu hit the darkness with an ax, as a result of which everything light and pure immediately rose up and formed the sky, and everything heavy and dirty fell down and formed the earth. The beginnings of natural philosophy are visible in the myths about the origin of the Universe.

The mythological form of thinking existed until the first millennium.

Many mythological images turn into later philosophical treatises. Philosophers who lived in the V-III centuries. BC e., often turn to myths in order to substantiate their concepts of true government and norms of correct human behavior. Philosophy arose in the depths of mythological ideas and used their materials.

Like the philosophies of other peoples, ancient Chinese philosophy is closely related to mythology. However, this connection had some features arising from the specifics of mythology in China. Chinese myths appear as historical legends about past dynasties, but they contain relatively little material reflecting the views of the Chinese on the formation of the world and its relationship with man. Therefore, natural philosophical ideas did not occupy a central place in Chinese philosophy. However, all the natural philosophical teachings of Ancient China, such as the teachings about the “five primary elements”, about the “great limit” - taiji, about forces yin And yang and even the doctrine of Tao, originate from the mythological constructions of the ancient Chinese about heaven and earth, about the “eight elements”.

Along with the emergence of cosmogonic concepts based on the forces yin And yang, concepts arise that were associated with the “five primary elements.” Living contemplation of natural phenomena led the ancient Chinese thinkers to the acceptance of such interconnected principles as water, fire, metal, earth, and wood. “Heaven created five principles, and the people use them all. One thing needs to be abolished. And life will become impossible.”

In the VII-III centuries. BC e. In the ideological life of Ancient China, new phenomena appear that are qualitatively different from what Chinese thought knew in the previous period, and which were caused by serious social changes.

During this period, major economic and social changes occurred in Ancient China due to the emergence of private ownership of land, the development of productive forces, the expansion of types of crafts, the use of new tools and tools in agriculture and industry, and the improvement of soil cultivation methods.

Specified period Chinese history It is also characterized by an acute social struggle within the kingdoms that had advanced with their economic and military power, a bloody war between them, which, according to sources, claimed hundreds of thousands of lives. The unified Zhou state actually collapsed. The struggle for dominance between the kingdoms led in the second half of the 3rd century. BC e. to the destruction of the “Warring States” and the unification of China into a centralized state under the auspices of the strongest kingdom of Qin.

Deep political upheavals - the collapse of the ancient unified state and the strengthening of individual kingdoms, an intense struggle between large kingdoms - were reflected in the stormy ideological struggle of various philosophical, political and ethical schools. This period is characterized by the flourishing of culture and philosophy.

The hereditary slave-owning clan nobility still clung to the religious ideas of “heaven”, “fate”, although modifying them in relation to the peculiarities of the struggle of that time. New social groups that were in opposition to the clan aristocracy put forward their views, opposing the belief in “heaven” or putting a completely different meaning into the concept of heavenly destiny. In these teachings, attempts were made to comprehend historical experience, to develop new rules for the relationship between various social groups of the population, to determine the place of an individual person, a country in the surrounding world, to determine a person’s relationship with nature, the state and other people.

It was during this period that the formation of Chinese philosophical schools took place - Taoism, Confucianism, Mohism, Legalism, natural philosophers, who then had a huge influence on all subsequent developments of Chinese philosophy. It was during this period that those problems, those concepts and categories arose, which then became traditional for the entire subsequent history of Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

· Features of the development of philosophy in China.

The history of philosophy clearly reveals the process of man’s exploration of nature, his attempts to comprehend his place in the universe, and reveals the multifaceted aspects of the creative human genius. At the same time, the history of the formation and development of philosophy, be it Chinese, or Greek, or Indian, is inextricably linked with the class struggle in society and reflects this struggle. The confrontation between philosophical ideas reflected the struggle of different classes in society. Ultimately, clashes of views and points of view resulted in a struggle between two main directions in philosophy - materialistic and idealistic - with varying degrees of awareness and depth of expression of these directions.

The specificity of Chinese philosophy is directly related to its special role in the acute socio-political struggle that took place in numerous states of Ancient China. The development of social relations in China did not lead to a clear division of spheres of activity within the ruling classes, as was the case, for example, in Ancient Greece. In China, the peculiar division of labor between politicians and philosophers was not clearly expressed, which led to the direct, immediate subordination of philosophy to political practice. Philosophers, founders and propagators of various schools, traveling Confucian preachers, representing a very influential social stratum, often served as ministers, dignitaries, and ambassadors. This led to the fact that issues of governing the country, relations between different classes and social groups of the population in society, regulation of relations between the “tops” and the “bottoms”, as well as within the ruling class, questions of ethics took a dominant place in Chinese philosophy and determined the purely practical approach to social life. Therefore, Chinese thinkers of both antiquity and the Middle Ages paid a lot of attention to the problems of governing the country.

Another feature of the development of Chinese philosophy is related to the fact that the natural science observations of Chinese scientists did not find, with a few exceptions, more or less adequate expression in philosophy, since philosophers did not consider it necessary to turn to natural science materials. The only exceptions in this regard were the Mohist school and the school of natural philosophers, which, however, ceased to exist after the Zhou era. The traditions of combining philosophical reflection and natural science observations established by the Mohists to confirm general philosophical conclusions were not further developed. The canonization of Confucianism, which from the very beginning, in the person of Confucius, expressed its extremely disdainful attitude towards all natural scientific observations and applied knowledge, which considered the main task to be the self-improvement of human morality, created an ideological barrier for attracting data from the natural sciences into philosophy and political judgments, and downgraded the social status of natural scientific observations. and applied knowledge.

They were tacitly recognized as the lot of inferior people, devoid of sublime ideas. Philosophy and natural science existed in China, as if fenced off from each other. Thus, Chinese philosophy deprived itself of a reliable source for the formation of an integral, comprehensive worldview, and natural science, despised by the official ideology, remained the lot of loners and seekers of the elixir of immortality.

Chinese philosophy is something special, difficult to explain for a European, since its essence lies in the consonance, conjugation and integrity of man and the world. The roots of Chinese philosophy go deep into mythological thinking, in which we encounter the deification of heaven and earth, the animation of all objects, the veneration of the cult of the dead, ancestors, magic, communication with spirits, etc. The first ideas about the world and man are contained in one of the most important classical books of Ancient China.

School of the Way and Power of Taoists;

Mohist School;

School of names;

Legalist School.

At the same time, these schools had much in common and reflected the essence of the worldview and assessment of their era.

Common features characteristic of Chinese philosophical schools can be considered:

The idea of ​​the inseparability of man and nature, all parts of the universe;

Animation of nature, deification of the sky, parts of the surrounding world;

High value of life (in physical and spiritual aspects);

Increased attention to issues of social structure, management and government organization;

Anthropological, imperative (the focus is always on the problem of man, issues of ethics, moral improvement);

The internal stability of Chinese philosophy, the idea of ​​superiority and intolerance towards other teachings and cultures;

Interest in questions of magic as a practical side of philosophy.

Let us consider the most important philosophical schools for the history of China.

2. Taoism.

Taoism is the most important tradition in China, unified on two levels - religious and philosophical. The main directions and objects of the philosophy of Taoism are ontology (nature, space), anthropology (man as a physical and spiritual being), ethics (the search for an ideal form of behavior), political philosophy (the doctrine of an ideal ruler).

The basis of the Taoist worldview, according to experts, is made up of three ideas:

1) all phenomena (including humans) are intertwined into a single essence of mutually influencing forces, both visible and invisible. Related to this is the Taoist idea of ​​“flow” - universal formation and change;

2) primitivism, that is, the idea that man and society will improve if we return to primordial simplicity with its minimum of differentiation, learning, and activity;

3) the belief that people, through various methods - mystical contemplation, diet, various practices, alchemy - can achieve perfection, which manifests itself in longevity (immortality), supernatural abilities, the ability to know the forces of nature and master them.

The basis of Taoism is the doctrine of Tao and the concept of immortality (xian), which are distinguished by a pronounced practical orientation. Following the path of world harmony - the great Dao in the limit, it contributes to the acquisition of immortality (xian) or longevity without death, which is the highest goal of numerous spiritual and physical practices.

But if in most religious teachings of the world we are talking about the immortality of the soul, then in Taoism the task is bodily immortality, since the soul and body, understood as manifestations of yin and yang, are seen as inseparable and do not exist separately. This also determines a completely different attitude to life than, for example, in India, which is considered in Taoism as an unconditional value and good.

The central concepts of the treatise are Tao and Te. Tao in Taoism is understood in two main meanings:

1) the eternal, nameless essence of nature, the world, contained in the natural harmony of all elements (nameless Tao);

2) the origin, “the mother of all things,” “the root of earth and sky,” the source of the development of the world (called Tao).

The properties of Tao are non-existence, inactivity, emptiness, spontaneity, naturalness, inexhaustibility, incomprehensibility, omnipresence, perfection, tranquility, etc. The Tao is dark and unconscious, rationally indefinable and incomprehensible. All attempts to name it, see it, grasp it lead to illusions and “is not the real Tao.” Tao gives birth to the world not purposefully, but spontaneously, fills everything that exists with power - without action. Therefore, a person’s movement towards Tao is also associated with a calm, restrained, harmonious adherence to natural nature, which does not require additions, multiplication, transformations, representing perfection without effort.

Tao is the basis of the harmony of the world; it is emptiness, inexpressible in form. Tao has its own creative power - de, through which it manifests itself in the world. Dae - individual concretization of things, the good power of Tao, manifested in the world of objects. The world, according to Tao, is in the spontaneous indefinite movement of numerous particles, or “grains” of existence. Everything in the world changes thanks to the interaction of two eternal principles- yin and yang.

They penetrate each other and constantly transform into each other. “When people learned what beauty is, ugliness also appeared. When everyone learned that good is good, evil appeared. Therefore, being and non-being give rise to each other, difficult and easy create each other, low and high bend towards each other,” says the Tao Te Ching. Life and death are seen as natural components of the cycle of change. Death is not a negation, but a source of life, as a potential, unformed being.

The soul and body are considered in the Taoist tradition as embodiments of yin and yang, which do not exist without each other. A person has a whole complex of souls (there are seven of them), which after the death of the body dissolve in the heavenly pneuma. Rejecting the possibility of immortality of the soul after death, Taoism asserts unique idea gaining personal immortality (xian) through connection with Tao, the substantial basis of the cosmos. Space is comparable to a huge furnace that melts everything that exists, and death is only one of these “meltings”.

And since the world and man are a single system, therefore, since the world is eternal, then its reduced analogue, man, can also be eternal. Finding immortality is the path of following Tao, the path of chosen, exceptional individuals. To do this, it is necessary to have the ability of a special non-rational comprehension of the world through direct penetration into the nature of things and to observe main principle behavior - non-action ( ve th) or action without violating the measure of things ( cit).

To achieve the highest goal - initiation into Tao - the mystics of Taoism in Ancient and Medieval China used the principles of theoretical and practical alchemy, the purpose of which was to create an elixir of immortality and develop “psycho-training” for creating an immortal body and the corresponding enlightened consciousness. One of the famous theorists of internal alchemy was the Chinese philosopher Zhong Yuan.

At the same time, all rational knowledge in Taoism is considered evil, as is any interference in the natural course of things. Hence the rejection of the benefits of civilization, the ideal of simplicity and naturalness, primitiveness and primitiveness. The main virtue of a Taoist is peace and abstinence.

Taoist ethics states the following rules:

Use your vitality sparingly;

Follow the life path of animals;

Perform 1200 good deeds in a row;

Refrain from violence, lies, evil, theft, excesses, alcohol.

Those who achieved the ideal in Taoism were called perfectly wise elders, or shen ren. According to legends, they conquered time and gained endless longevity.

Taoist virtue is distinguished by a paradoxical combination of egoism and altruism, where, on the one hand, the main focus is on detachment from any activity, struggle for the sake of one’s own peace and independence, and on the other hand, the idea of ​​doing secret good is affirmed. This doctrine opposes the Confucian principle of reciprocity and encourages the adept to act for the benefit of another, not with the expectation of gratitude or reciprocal action, but in an absolutely unselfish manner and preferably in secret for him and everyone else.

At the same time, Taoism proceeds from the fact that every action has two sides, and absolute good is impossible, therefore the highest state is not the path of good, but the ability to rise above good and evil, union with Tao, which existed even before the division into yin and yang , dark and light, high and low. This path can be called the path of harmony, which inevitably includes all elements, but makes them non-hostile to each other.

Wisdom in Taoism is the knowledge of Tao, that is, the knowledge that things are essentially one, the same. They are creatures of the Great Emptiness, they are temporary, fluid, impermanent. For a sage, all things are equal, he “doesn’t care”, things don’t bother him because they are emptiness. At the same time, the knowledge of Tao gives true liberation, a return to one’s original nature and unification with that main force that directs the flow of becoming. This wisdom gives peace and inner harmony, and before the inner gaze of the sage the world appears as a single, integral one.

The famous aphorism of the Taoist Zhuang Tzu says: “He who knows does not speak, and he who speaks does not know.” The “ignorance” of the sage is, as it were, the limit of knowledge, since the limit of all things is the Great Emptiness, about which nothing can be said. Tao has no image, taste, color or smell, but thanks to it everything is born and everything moves. The sage's inaction means following world harmony and not violating it.

According to the teachings of Tao, the best ruler is the one whose presence is not noticed, who rules without interfering in the course of events. But non-action does not mean that following the Tao is easy. Only a sage can cognize the Tao, the laws of world harmony and follow them. To follow Tao is to follow “naturalness”, one’s own “nature”. This means discarding artificiality and everything contrary to “nature”. This ideal is radically opposed to the principles of China's other greatest teaching, Confucianism.

3. Confucianism.

A crisis ancient religion was in full swing when one of Lao Tzu's disciples began to preach - Kung Tzu ( Confucius) . He was very concerned about what was happening and therefore focused his attention on studying the “golden ages” of Chinese history, when order reigned in the empire and everyone was happy with their position. Already at the age of 30, the philosopher created his own school, in which he began to preach a “return to antiquity.”

The most concise formulation of the teachings of Confucius is contained in the words: “A sovereign must be a sovereign, a dignitary must be a dignitary, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.” His thought boiled down to the fact that everything had shifted from its traditional places and should now return to its previous state. But how to do that? Confucius developed a whole set of rules of behavior that every person striving for virtue must adhere to. The ideal virtuous person, or noble man (juan zi), was, according to the teaching, supposed to rule the entire society.

The main virtues of an ideal personality included the following:

The most important quality a person should have is ren, that is, philanthropy, humanity.

Another virtue called whether, meant following order, etiquette, ritual, maintaining delicacy, balance, and complete obedience. This category regulated relationships between people in various spheres of life.

The most important principle for Confucianism was xiao- filial and brotherly piety. He strictly regulated the relations between fathers and children, bosses and subordinates.

To maintain subordination, the principle of justice and service was developed - And .

A noble husband had to have wisdom and knowledge, which had to be combined with virtue. This quality was called zhi(intelligence, knowledge, scholarship).

If we expand the basic list, then the following qualities must be added to this image:

Modesty (“A man remains in obscurity, but does not feel resentment; isn’t this a noble man?”);

Sincerity (“People with beautiful words and feigned manners have little love for humanity”);

Simplicity of life (“a noble husband is moderate in food, does not strive for comfort in housing, is efficient in business”);

Reciprocity (“Tzu Kung asked: “Is it possible to be guided throughout your life by one word?” The teacher replied: “This word is reciprocity. Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself.”);

Strength and perseverance in enduring difficulties (“A noble man, falling into need, endures it steadfastly. A low man, falling into need, blossoms”);

Harmony in interaction with people (“A noble husband... knows how to be in agreement with everyone, but does not enter into an agreement with anyone”);

Unselfishness, selflessness (“Whoever acts, striving for his own benefit, arouses great hostility”; “A noble man knows only duty, a low man only profit”);

Caring for people, not for “spirits” (“To properly serve the people, honor the spirits and stay away from them - this is wisdom”);

Sociability, "sociality", the ability to harmoniously fit into society; devotion to the sovereign; truthfulness; love of learning, etc.

As you can see, a “noble husband” is a morally and intellectually highly developed personality, oriented outward, toward fulfilling his duty to the state. Given that we are dealing not only with philosophy, but also with religious teaching, such attitudes receive the status of “sacred duty,” the will of Heaven, fate, etc. Failure to comply with ethical requirements does not lead to the loss of paradise, but to oblivion on earth - the most terrible punishment for a follower of Confucianism (the noble husband is upset that after death “his name will not be mentioned”).

As you can see, the goal of this teaching is immortality, but in the form of perpetuation in the good memory of descendants and children. Another important goal of Confucianism is the harmonization of relations in the system of society, where social inequality objectively contributes to the formation of contradictions, enmity, and unrest. In order to normalize life in society and achieve the most complex state of unity of subordination and dignity (equally important in Confucianism), it is proposed to use a ritual that allows everyone, playing a particular role, to “obey without humiliation”, to maintain inner dignity and high status in their own family.

The teachings of Confucius were brilliantly supplemented by Mencius, who, trying to understand the nature of man, came to the conclusion that it does not have a specific assignment, a guideline for good or evil. The Mencius treatise says: “Human nature is like a seething stream of water: if you open the way to the east for him, it will flow to the east; if you open the way to the west, it will flow to the west. Human nature is not divided into good and bad, just as water in its course does not distinguish between east and west. Man, according to Mencius, has various abilities that can develop into both vices and virtues.

This development depends on what is “prescribed by fate” for a person. It follows from this that all the highest virtues are contained in human nature itself, and the process of self-development turns out to be a variant of self-knowledge, and not a transformation of its essence: “All things are in us. There is no greater joy than to discover sincerity in self-understanding...” From the perspective of Confucianism, moral virtues stem from the natural nature of man, and do not contradict it. At the same time as on earth grow cultivated plants Just like weeds, nature can give rise to bad inclinations. The ability of the “perfectly wise” is that “he has previously comprehended what our hearts have in common.”

Knowing your nature, as well as knowing your mental abilities, says Mencius, “this is the path of serving Heaven. On this path, a person “does not care about either premature death or longevity, and he, improving himself, awaits the command of heaven - this is the path to finding his destiny.” Thus, the goal of Confucianism is not to seek physical or mental immortality, but to achieve immortality in the good memory of posterity, for which it is necessary to be in harmony with one’s nature and social duty.

The fate of Confucianism turned out to be significant for the history of China. Already during the life of Confucius it was widely known; he himself was invited by Emperor Lu to serve and practically led the state. But then Confucius broke with public service and went to wander. After his death, Confucianism became the official religion of China and remained so until the socialist revolution at the beginning of the 20th century.

To achieve these goals, it is necessary, first of all, to abandon the unquestioning adherence to the customs of antiquity, which Confucius demanded. Mo Tzu proclaimed a new principle in relations between people: their basis should not be family ties, as Confucius taught, but "universal love."

All people in the country should love each other, regardless of family ties, and then, he believed, social harmony would come. In order for the people to accept the new principle of "universal love", Mo Tzu proposed two methods: persuasion (to inspire people that their love for near and far will pay off with love for them in return) and coercion (it is necessary to develop a system of rewards and punishments in order to love it became profitable for people, and it was unprofitable to harm).

Further, in his opinion, it was necessary to introduce the strictest cost savings, remove luxury items, eliminate expensive rites and ceremonies, and most importantly, put an end to the wars tearing the country apart. But the teachings of Mo Tzu never spread to China. The concept of "universal love", the rejection of luxury and war did not find the support of the authorities.

5. Legalism.

Another notable school in China during that crisis period was the school of legalists, or fan-chia. It got its name because it based everything on a written, common law for all, as opposed to traditional customary law. According to this oral law, aristocrats could not be judged by the same standards as commoners. The Legists proclaimed the principle "Law is the father and mother of the people". One of the founders of legalism, Guan Zhong, argued that the ruler and officials, high and low, noble and vile, should all follow the law.

This he called the great art of government. His ideas were developed by Shang Yang, who managed to interest the ruler of the Qin kingdom, Xiao Gong, with his teachings, and he entrusted him with carrying out political reforms. This was another case when a new philosophical teaching in Ancient China was put into practice, and, at first glance, with great success. Thanks to Shang Yang's reforms, the Qin state became the most influential in the country and, after a series of wars, united China into a powerful empire. What was Shang Yang's teaching?

First of all, he decisively rejected Confucius's concept of leadership by example. A philanthropist can be philanthropic to other people, Shang Yang believed, but he cannot force people to be philanthropic. Philanthropy alone is not enough to achieve good governance in the Middle Kingdom. If Confucius believed that the main motive of a person is conscience, then Shang Yang, following Mo Tzu, believed that they are the desire for profit and the fear of punishment. The system of rewards and punishments becomes Shang Yang's only means of establishing order, while the role of the latter is immeasurably higher than the role of the former.

In a country that has achieved dominion in the Celestial Empire, for every 9 punishments there is 1 reward, Shang Yang taught, while in a country doomed to destruction, for every 5 punishments there are 5 rewards. Moreover, the size of the punishment did not depend on the crime. Punishments should be severe even for the smallest offense. Laws must be made known to everyone and stated so clearly that anyone can understand them. Discussion of laws was prohibited. Even those who praised his laws were exiled by Shang Yang to the far reaches of the empire. The laws were not written for one monarch; he was their only source and could change them at any time.

In addition, the ideal of Shang Yang's teaching was a state that constantly wages wars and wins victories. Shang Yang expressed the general meaning of the reforms in a brief formulation: if the people are weak, the state is powerful, but when the people are powerful, the state is powerless. Shang Yang's reforms contributed to the unification of China, the strengthening of state power, and the revitalization of the economy, but this was achieved at an exorbitantly high price - the lives and suffering of many people.

In general, the philosophy of Ancient China greatly influenced the fate of the state, the mentality of its people, and a unique culture that became famous throughout the world. Most philosophical theories turned out to be not only logical constructs, but programs for transforming society, partly embodied in reality. And this also lies in the uniqueness of the Chinese philosophical tradition.

China is known for its picturesque nature, majestic architecture and unique culture. But besides all this, the Celestial Empire is a country with a rich historical past, which includes the birth of philosophy. According to research, this science began its development in China. The treasury of eastern wisdom has been replenished over the years, centuries, centuries. And now, using quotes from the great sages of China, we don’t even suspect it. Moreover, we know nothing about their authors, although this is not only useful, but also interesting information.

The main book of ancient Chinese philosophers is "Book of Changes" . Its key role lies in the fact that most famous philosophers turned to it, tried to interpret it in their own way and based their philosophical reflections on it.

The most famous philosopher of Ancient China - (604 BC - 5th century BC e.)

It is he who is the creator of the treatise Tao Te Tzu. He is considered the founder of Taoism - the doctrine according to which Tao is the highest matter, which gives rise to everything that exists. It is a universally accepted fact that “Lao Tzu” is not the real name of the philosopher. His birth name Li Er, but in ancient times the names Li and Lao were similar. The name "Lao Tzu" translates to "Old Sage". There is a legend that the sage was born an old man, and his mother was pregnant for more than 80 years. Of course, modern researchers critically question this information. Lao Tzu's life was unremarkable: work at the emperor's court and philosophical reflections. But it was these reflections and works that made him the most famous philosopher and sage of Ancient China.

2. Confucius

3.Mencius

The next philosopher, about whom many who were interested in the culture of China have also heard, is Mencius. Philosopher whose teachings became the basis for Neo-Confucianism. The sage argued that a person is born initially good, and under the influence of his environment becomes what he is in the end. I published my thoughts in the book Mengzi. The philosopher also believed that any type of activity should be distributed according to a person’s abilities. For example, high ranks should be held by those who are intellectually gifted, and people capable only of physical activities should be subordinate to them. From a logical point of view, the theory is quite reasonable.

4. Gongsun Long

Have you ever heard of the School of Names? An analogue of such a school in Greece was the School of Sophists. The representative of the School of Names of China was a philosopher Gongsun Long. It is he who owns the quote “a white horse is not a horse.” Sounds absurd, doesn't it? Thanks to such statements, Gongsun deservedly received the nickname “master of paradoxes.” His statements are not clear to everyone, even if there is an interpretation. Perhaps for this you need to retire somewhere in the valley, with a cup Chinese tea and think about why a white horse is not really white.

5. Zou Yan

But the philosopher who decided to discuss the horse - Zou Yan- claimed that a white horse is, in fact, white. This sage was a representative of the Yin Yang school. However, he was not only engaged in philosophy. His works in the field of geography and history have been preserved, which are confirmed even now. In other words, the definitions and patterns of Zou Yan, which were created thousands of years ago, are confirmed by modern scientists. Just imagine how intellectually developed this person was to describe the world around him so accurately!

6. Xunzi

An atheist sage can be considered Xunzi. The philosopher held high ranks more than once, but, unfortunately, did not last long in any of them. I had to part with one position because of slander, and I had to resign from another. Deciding that he could not build a successful career, Xunzi plunged headlong into thought and the creation of the treatise “Xugenzi” - the first philosophical work in which the thoughts of the sage were not only presented, but also systematized. Thanks to this, his quotes have come to us in the exact wording of their creator. The Chinese philosopher believed that a person’s Spirit appears only when he has fulfilled his true destiny. And all processes in the world are subject to the laws of Nature.

7. Han Fei

Taking his place among philosophers with rather strange statements Han Fei. The sage was born in the royal house and studied under Xun Tzu. But from birth he had speech defects, which undoubtedly influenced the attitude of others towards him. Perhaps this is why his thoughts differ significantly from the thoughts of his predecessors. For example, according to his treatise, mental and moral data do not in any way affect the qualities of the ruler as such, and subjects are obliged to obey any of his orders. For him, the ideal form of government was despotism. Although given his noble origins, this is not surprising. It seems that Han Fei, in his thoughts, imagined himself in the place of a ruler and sovereign.

8. Dong Zhongshu

A significant figure in the history of the development of Confucianism was Dong Zhongshu. This man not only thought, but also acted. It was thanks to this philosopher that Confucianism was presented as the main teaching of the Han Dynasty. It was according to his dogmas that life in the state developed, rulers were elected and decisions were made. According to his worldview, the ruler was sent to people from Heaven and all his further actions should be for the benefit of the people and to maintain harmony. But Heaven in its own way controls this process and if something goes wrong, it sends various natural disasters (flood, drought, etc.) to the state. Dong Zhongshu outlined all his ideas in the work “The Abundant Dew of the Chronicle of Chunqiu.”

9. Wang Chun

The philosopher and scientist was not only Zou Yan, but also Wang Chun, who worked both in the fields of philosophy and in the fields of medicine and astronomy. He owns a detailed description of the natural water cycle. And in philosophical ideas, the sage adhered to Taoism and interpreted the “Book of Changes.” The philosopher was repeatedly offered the position of court scientist, but having a freedom-loving and fairly independent character, Wang Chong refused each time, explaining this by poor health.