Autonomous non-profit organization of higher professional
education "Russian Academy of Entrepreneurship"

Essay
in philosophy
on the topic of:
"Philosophy of Ancient Rome"

Performed by a student of the VDk group - 12 - 019
Pirogova O.V.

Scientific director
Shemyakina E. M.

Moscow
year 2012

Content

Introduction
After the subjugation of Greece to Rome in the 2nd century. BC e. The Roman Empire began to adopt philosophical teachings that appeared in Ancient Greece during the era of the collapse of the Athenian state. Unlike Greek philosophy, Roman philosophy was predominantly ethical in nature. The main task of Roman philosophy is not the study of the essence of things, but the problem of achieving the highest good, happiness, and developing the rules of life.
This paper will examine some of the main philosophical movements established in Rome, such as Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism, as well as their prominent representatives - Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Titus Lucretius Carus and Aenesidemus.

Stoicism
Stoicism is the teaching of one of the most influential philosophical schools of antiquity, founded around 300 BC. Zeno from China; its name comes from the “Painted Portico” - “Stand” in Athens, where Zeno taught. The history of Stoicism is traditionally divided into three periods: Early (Zeno III-II centuries BC), Middle (Panaetius, Posidonius, Hekaton II-I centuries BC) and Late (or Roman) Stoicism (Seneca , Marcus Aurelius I-II centuries AD).
The teachings of the Stoics are usually divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics. They famously compare philosophy to an orchard: logic corresponds to the fence that protects it, physics is the growing tree, and ethics is the fruit.
Logic is a fundamental part of Stoicism; its task is to substantiate the necessary and universal laws of reason as the laws of knowledge, being, and philosophizing as a strict “scientific” procedure.
Physics. The Stoics imagine the world as a living organism. According to Stoicism, everything that exists is corporeal, and differs only in the degree of “coarseness” or “subtlety” of matter. Strength is the subtlest matter. The power that controls the world as a whole is God. All matter is only changes of this divine force. Things and events are repeated after each periodic ignition and purification of the cosmos.
Ethics. All people are citizens of space as a world state; Stoic cosmopolitanism equalized all people in the face of world law: free and slaves, citizens and barbarians, men and women. According to the Stoics, every moral action is self-preservation and self-affirmation and increases the common good. All sins and immoral acts are self-destruction, the loss of one’s own human nature. Correct desires, actions and deeds are a guarantee of human happiness; for this you need to develop your personality in every possible way, not be submissive to fate, not bow to any force.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (5 BC – 65 AD)
Seneca was from Cordoba, he attached great importance to the practical side of philosophy, ethics, and explored the question of how to live a virtuous life without delving into a theoretical study of the nature of virtue. He views philosophy as a means of acquiring virtue. “Let our words bring not pleasure, but benefit - the patient is not looking for the doctor who speaks eloquently.”
In his theoretical views, Seneca adhered to the materialism of the ancient Stoics, but in practice he believed in the transcendence of God. He believed that fate is not a blind element. She has intelligence, a piece of which is present in every person. Every misfortune is a reason for virtuous self-improvement. The philosopher suggests striving for high courage, steadfastly enduring everything that fate sends us, and surrendering to the will of the laws of nature.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 BC - 180 BC)
Roman Emperor from 161 to 180 AD. e., in his reflections “To himself” he says that “the only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts.” “Look into your insides! There, inside, is a source of goodness that can flow without drying up if you constantly dig into it.” He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspiration should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to the “reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature.” Marcus Aurelius recommends: “Calm thought in everything that comes from without, and justice in everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is Your wish and action, let them consist in actions that are generally beneficial, for this is in accordance with your nature.”
Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism.

Epicureanism.
Epicureanism was the only materialistic philosophy in ancient Rome. The materialist trend in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy was named after its founder Epicurus. At the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Followers of Epicurus appear among the Romans, the most prominent of whom was Titus Lucretius Carus.

Titus Lucretius Carus (95 BC – 55 BC)
Lucretius completely identifies his views with the teachings of Epicurus. In his work “On the Nature of Things,” he masterfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of atomistic teaching, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism from both earlier and contemporary opponents, while simultaneously giving the most complete and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only things that exist. Where the emptiness, the so-called space, extends, there is no matter; and where matter extends, there is no emptiness or space in any way.
He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the entire body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.
Lucretius tries to explain the emergence of society in a natural way. He says that initially people lived in a “semi-wild state”, without fire or shelter. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd gradually turns into a society. Like Epicurus, he believed that society (law, laws) arises as a product of mutual agreement between people: “The neighbors then began to unite in friendship, no longer wanting to cause lawlessness and quarrel, and children and the female sex were taken under protection, showing gestures and awkward sounds, that everyone should have sympathy for the weak. Although agreement could not be universally recognized, the best and most part religiously fulfilled the agreement.”
Lucretius's materialism also has its atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes any belief in gods. He criticizes the idea of life after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes.
Epicureanism persisted in Roman society for a relatively long time. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity became the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle began against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

Skepticism
At the core of skepticism is a position based on doubt about the existence of any reliable criterion of truth. Skepticism is contradictory in nature; it prompted some to an in-depth search for truth, and others to militant ignorance and immorality. The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 - 270 BC).

Pyrrho and his philosophical views
According to the teachings of Pyrrho, a philosopher is a person who strives for happiness. It, in his opinion, lies only in equanimity, combined with the absence of suffering.
Anyone who wants to achieve happiness must answer three questions: 1) what things are made of; 2) how to treat them; 3) what benefit we are able to get from our attitude towards them.
Pyrrho believed that no answer could be given to the first question, nor could it be asserted that something definite exists. Moreover, any statement about any subject can with equal right be contrasted with a statement that contradicts it.
From the recognition of the impossibility of unambiguous statements about things, Pyrrho derived the answer to the second question: the philosophical attitude towards things consists in abstaining from any judgments. This answer also predetermines the answer to the third question: the benefit and benefit arising from abstaining from all kinds of judgments consists of equanimity or serenity. This state, called ataraxia, based on the renunciation of knowledge, is considered by skeptics as the highest level of bliss.
Pyrrho's efforts to shackle human curiosity with doubt and slow down progress along the path of progressive development of knowledge were in vain. The future, which seemed to skeptics as a terrible punishment for believing in the omnipotence of knowledge, nevertheless came, and none of his warnings could stop it.

Neoplatonism
Neoplatonism developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism is formed in the same social environment as Christianity. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and its most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270).

Plotinus and his philosophical views
Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is the supersensible, supernatural, supramental divine principle. All forms of existence depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says of it that it is unknowable. This only true being is comprehensible only by penetrating into the very center of pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the “rejection” of thought - ecstasy. Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being.
Nature, according to Plotinus, is created in such a way that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existences from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation stands the divine principle, next is the divine soul, and below all is nature.
Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. For him it is a definite transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external to them.

Conclusion
In general, the philosophy of Ancient Rome had a huge influence on subsequent philosophical thought, culture, and the development of human civilization. The philosophy of Ancient Rome contained the rudiments of the main types of philosophical worldview, which were developed in all subsequent centuries. Many of the problems that ancient philosophers pondered have not lost their relevance to this day. The study of ancient philosophy not only gives us valuable information about the results of the thoughts of outstanding thinkers, but also contributes to the development of more sophisticated philosophical thinking.

Bibliography
Books

Electronic information resources

Other information resources

Stoicism is the teaching of one of the most influential philosophical schools of antiquity, founded around 300 BC. Zeno from China. The teachings of the Stoics are usually divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (5 BC – 65 AD) views philosophy as a means of acquiring virtue. In his theoretical views, Seneca adhered to the materialism of the ancient Stoics, but in practice he believed in the transcendence of God.
Transcendence is a philosophical term that characterizes something that is fundamentally inaccessible to experimental knowledge or is not based on experience.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 BC - 180 BC) - Roman Emperor from 161 to 180 AD. e., in his reflections “To himself” he says that “the only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts.”
Epicureanism is the only materialistic philosophy in ancient Rome (founder - Epicurus).
Titus Lucretius Carus (95 BC - 55 BC) wrote On the Nature of Things, where he defends the basic principles of atomism. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only things that exist.
In 313 AD e. Christianity became the official state. religion, the struggle against Epicureanism began.
Skepticism is doubt about the existence of any reliable criterion of truth, the founder was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 - 270 BC).
Three questions: 1) what things are made of; 2) how to treat them; 3) what benefit we are able to get from our attitude towards them. 1 No answer can be given to the first question, 2 the philosophical attitude towards things consists in abstaining from any judgments, 3 the benefit and benefit arising from abstaining from all kinds of judgments consists in equanimity or serenity. This state, called ataraxia, based on the renunciation of knowledge, is considered by skeptics as the highest level of bliss.
Ataraxia is peace of mind, equanimity, serenity, according to some ancient Greek philosophers, achieved by a sage.
Neoplatonism developed in the 3rd-5th centuries. n. BC, the founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and the most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270).
Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is the supersensible, supernatural, supramental divine principle. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. For him it is a definite transition from the divine to the material.

PREFACE

In the II-I century. BC. The dominant position in Europe and throughout the Mediterranean is gradually occupied by the state of the Romans, which by the end of the 1st century. BC. from republic to empire. Already at the beginning of the new era, the Roman Empire ruled over vast territories, spreading its political influence from the western borders of Europe to Egypt and Asia Minor.

This geopolitical position of the Roman Empire also affected the uniqueness of Roman culture of that time. In this sense, Roman culture was not distinguished by any special independence, but was the result of the fusion of a wide variety of cultural traditions - ancient, eastern, Christian and even barbarian. Such a fusion was often mechanical, and the coexistence of different cultural trends ultimately led to the emergence of a cultural phenomenon in which different traditions were not a single alloy, but a kind of mosaic.

And the philosophy of the times of the Roman Empire is not some kind of unified, independent teaching. More typical is the revival and development in new conditions of previous philosophical teachings of antiquity. In Rome there were quite a few philosophical schools and movements: Stoicism, Epicureanism, skepticism, Neoplatonism, Neo-Pythagoreanism, Aristotelianism and other ancient Greek philosophical teachings.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE YOUNGER STOA

The philosophy of the Stoics gained the greatest number of admirers in Rome. Most likely, this is due to the fact that the position of an individual in the Roman Empire was somewhat similar to the position of an individual in the Hellenistic monarchies - all residents of Rome itself and its provinces were subjects of the empire. Accordingly, Roman philosophers were interested in the same questions as the thinkers of the Hellenistic era: special attention was paid to the problems of the individual human personality; questions of ethics occupied the minds of most thinkers; the gradual penetration into the consciousness of people of the idea of a single God, replacing the polytheism characteristic of classical antiquity.

And, apparently, it was Stoicism that best met the spiritual needs of the Romans; it was not without reason that this teaching attracted and united people from various social strata: Seneca - a court philosopher, Epictetus - a slave who became free in adulthood, and, finally, Marcus Aurelius - one of the emperors of Rome. The names of these three thinkers are associated with the last, third period in the development of Stoicism, sometimes called neo-Stoicism - the Younger Stoa.

SENECA

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD) was born in the Roman province of Southern Spain in the city of Cordoba. Once in Rome, Seneca made a brilliant political career and made a significant fortune for himself. Seneca was the educator of the future emperor Nero, who, having taken the throne, initially listened to the advice of the philosopher. However, Seneca's constant participation in political intrigues, as well as the personal qualities of the violent emperor, determined the rupture of relations between them. First, Seneca was sent into exile, and then, sentenced to death by Nero, committed suicide.

The desire of the Stoics to follow the dispassionate law of nature, Seneca brings to the formulation of the idea of a single God, who is this law. “There cannot be nature without God and God without nature,” he says. God, in Seneca’s understanding, is identified with fate, providence, with the world as a whole: “Would you like to call it fate? You will not be mistaken... Would you like to call it providence? And here you would be right... Would you like to call it nature? And this is not a mistake... He is everything that you see; he is completely fused with all parts, supporting himself with his power."

God defines life, with all its joys and sufferings, successes and adversities. As a true Stoic, Seneca sees the main goal of life in overcoming suffering. Philosophy can help a person in this, the task of which is to shape human character and make it capable of withstanding all the blows of fate. The highest type of person is a sage-philosopher who knows how to tame troubles and stands above all passions. However, even if the sage has overcome many vices in himself, he is still far from all of them, since there are no absolutely perfect people.

Affirming the universal imperfection of people, for only God is perfect, Seneca uses the concept of sin and guilt, which is new to Stoicism. In his opinion, man is sinful from the very beginning, and he cannot be otherwise. If anyone is sinless, says Seneca, then he is not a man, for even a sage, while remaining a man, is sinful.

However, a person, realizing his imperfection, must still strive for a virtuous life. And here, developing the teachings of early Stoicism, Seneca reveals the concept of conscience as a spiritual force and the moral foundation of man. Conscience is the ability to comprehend what is good and evil.

Seneca himself, however, did not always live in accordance with his philosophical principles: preaching poverty, he acquired a large fortune by hook or by crook; calling to be above all passions, he threw himself with all passion into the waves of political struggle. The philosopher was aware of this discrepancy between word and deed, and, justifying himself, said: “They tell me that my life does not agree with my teaching... All philosophers talk not about how they themselves live, but how one should live. I’m talking about virtues, and not about myself, and I am fighting against vices, including my own: when I can, I will live as I should.” However, sometimes Seneca’s self-justifications were quite cynical. Thus, in his “Letters to Lucilius” he states that “the shortest path to wealth is through contempt for wealth.”

Seneca’s teaching turned out to be quite close in spirit to the Christian theology that was emerging a little later. One of the early Christian philosophers, Tertullian, argued that at times Seneca was almost a Christian. Jerome even included Seneca in the list of Christian writers. And in the Middle Ages, his works were repeatedly quoted at church councils.

EPICTETUS

It is unknown how and when Epictetus received freedom, but in 92–94, already free, he, along with other philosophers, was expelled from Rome by decree of Emperor Domitian. After that, he settled in Nikopolis in the Balkans and opened his own philosophical school.

Despite the fact that Epictetus had many rich students and admirers, he, in accordance with his principles, led a miserable life. All his property consisted of a straw mat, a wooden bench, a mat and an earthen lamp. Interestingly, after the death of the philosopher, this lamp was sold at auction as a relic for three thousand drachmas (more than 13 kg of silver).

Epictetus did not leave behind any works, following in this sense the precepts of Socrates. The speeches of Epictetus were recorded by his student Flavius Arrian, compiling several books from them, of which only four books have reached us.

Compared to Seneca, Epictetus introduces an even greater religious component into the teachings of the Stoics. God, in his opinion, is the supreme mind and the common good. God is Providence, which controls not only the general state of things, but also each person individually. People must submit to God's will, for only then will they be able to increase divine greatness.

People cannot change the existing world order established by God, because it does not depend on their will and desires. But you can change your attitude towards this world order. According to Epictetus, in this sense, all things in the world are divided into two types: 1) those that are subject to us (opinions, aspirations, in general all human actions); 2) those that are beyond our control do not depend on our actions (property, wealth, relatives, body).

From this point of view, the possession of wealth, power, property is just a new form of slavery, for a person, lusting for things that are beyond his control, becomes their slave. Therefore, the sage, humbly and obediently accepting the limitations of his capabilities, concentrates his efforts only on what is in his power - on developing his own mind, on cultivating his own will, on limiting his own passions and desires. And only in this case is he able to achieve true freedom, accepting life as it is, subordinating all his powers to the fulfillment of the highest divine will.

The teachings of Epictetus have always appealed to Christianity; it is not for nothing that one of the Church Fathers, Jerome, in connection with Epictetus, said that Stoic philosophy in many cases is close to Christian theology, similar to its dogmas.

MARK AURELIUS

Marcus Aurelius (121–180) was Emperor of Rome from 161. He was an active and energetic ruler, under whom several wars were fought. At the end of his reign, a plague epidemic broke out in Rome, from which the emperor himself died.

After the death of Marcus Aurelius, his notes were found, which formed an entire philosophical work, under the code name “Alone with Oneself” or “Memoirs”. They are a series of aphorisms, maxims, observations made by Marcus Aurelius for himself without the intention of publication.

The notes of Marcus Aurelius literally fascinate the reader with the idea of frailty, the fluidity of everything worldly, monotony, meaninglessness and even insignificance of human life: “Time is a river... a swift stream. As soon as something appears, it already rushes past, but something else rushes by, and again the first one is in sight"; “The time of human life is a moment”; “Everyone’s life is insignificant, the corner of the earth where he lives is insignificant.”

Even posthumous glory, which people strive for in order to perpetuate themselves in the memory of their descendants, according to Marcus Aurelius, does not make any sense: “Everything is short-lived and soon begins to resemble a myth, and then indulges in complete oblivion... What is eternal glory? - sheer vanity."

But with such pronounced pessimism, Marcus Aurelius still finds spiritual support, which determines the actual meaning of human life - this is faith in a certain One-Whole, from where everything flows and where everything flows, and thereby saves everything separate from absolute vanity and meaninglessness. This One-Whole, as it were, governs the whole world, gives undeniable significance and certainty to nature in general, predetermines all moments of natural life.

The gods are also connected with the One-Whole in a supernatural way, whom you need to thank, always have in your thoughts, appeal to them and live with them.

The general global integrity and divine providence dictate to people a set of undoubted moral values that everyone must follow - these are “justice, truth, prudence, courage,” as well as “generally beneficial activity.” Therefore, ideally, a person is a creature “courageous, mature, devoted to the interests of the state,” who meekly fulfills his moral duty.

The concept of moral duty is also important in the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius, for the gods, in addition to duties, also granted people freedom of moral choice: “They arranged it in such a way that it depends entirely on the person himself whether to fall or not fall into true evil.”

In fact, the opportunity to make a free moral choice between good and evil is the main concern of man, which gives a certain meaning to his existence on Earth. A person can make his choice only with the help of reason, which Marcus Aurelius calls the genius of man, his deity. Reason is the “hegemonicon”, the guiding principle in man. It should be noted here that Marcus Aurelius, for the first time in the Stoic tradition, speaks of the complete independence of the human mind, that the mind is one of the components of man in general. Before him, the Stoics, in the spirit of Platonic philosophy, argued that man consists of only two parts - soul and body.

As a result, the Roman thinker comes to the conclusion that one must accept life as it is and be completely satisfied with it: “So, spend this moment in time in accordance with nature, and then part with life as easily as a ripe plum falls: praising nature that gave birth to it, and with gratitude to the tree that produced it.”

The philosophy of Marcus Aurelius, the last great Stoic, is evidence of the crisis and decline of the ancient spirit itself. The ancient world was collapsing before our eyes. And soon after the death of Marcus Aurelius, a new era begins - the era of the formation and flourishing of Christian culture.

PHILOSOPHY OF SKEPTICISM

SEXTUS EMPIRICUS

Biographical information about Sextus Empiricus (2nd–3rd centuries AD) is practically absent. For example, it is known that the teacher of Sextus Empiricus was a certain Herodotus. However, who Herodotus himself was is unknown. It is not known where and when Sextus Empiricus was born, where he lived, whether he was Greek or Roman. Even the name of the thinker does not explain anything to us. “Sextus” (“sixth”) is a Latin word, but in those days many Greeks bore Roman names. “Empiricists” in the Roman Empire were called doctors, therefore Sextus was a doctor. But in relation to the thinker himself, the word “Empiricist” has long ceased to mean simply “doctor,” but has long become his nickname, which became part of his name.

Sextus Empiricus was penned by two cycles of works written in Greek: “Pyrrhonian propositions” and “Against scientists.” However, since the book “Against the Scientists” consists of several chapters, logically divided into two parts, some researchers consider Sextus Empiricus the author of three books: “Pyrrhonian propositions”, “Against the dogmatists” and “Against the representatives of individual sciences”. In addition to the fact that Sextus Empiricus sets out his own views in these books, his writings have another remarkable quality - they are the most important source on the history of all ancient philosophy, for, refuting his predecessors, Sextus Empiricus sets out their views in detail. Moreover, the philosophical views of many ancient thinkers have reached us only in the retelling of Sextus Empiricus.

Sextus Empiricus was one of the last representatives of the philosophy of skepticism in the ancient world. The tradition of the philosophy of skepticism before Sextus Empiricus was already six hundred years old, and the founders of this philosophical trend are considered to be the ancient Greek thinkers Pyrrho, Timon of Phlius and Arcesilaus (IV-III centuries BC).

The essence of the teaching of skepticism is that skeptics, pointing to the relativity of human knowledge, considered any philosophical system unprovable. Sextus Empiricus argued that not only is any philosophical system unprovable, but even his own arguments against dogmatic philosophers are unprovable and unconvincing. That is why Sextus Empiricus, according to researchers, is the creator of the doctrine absolute skepticism.

One of the main goals of the philosophizing of Sextus Empiricus is to achieve equanimity. According to the thinker, a true sage is not attached to anything, loves nothing, is indifferent to everything and is not excited by anything. Therefore, all the pleasures and sufferings of life, all affirmations and denials are completely indifferent to him. Even the concept of happiness is indifferent to a true skeptic.

Another important feature of the skepticism of Sextus Empiricus can be considered that he was not the creator of only negative judgments. In other words, he did not say at all that “everything is false.” At the same time, skepticism does not contain a single positive statement, i.e. the truth of any judgments is not proven. Sextus Empiricus emphasized that for a true skeptic, everything in the world is equally false and equally true. Even his own judgment is also equally true and false, therefore the thinker himself “abstains” from your judgment. Sextus Empiricus said that some philosophers affirm something, others deny something, and skeptics do not affirm anything and do not deny anything, but are only still searching: “The skeptics are searching.”

The reason for the “skeptical” conclusions of Sextus Empiricus was the recognition of the fact that all things are constantly changing and have a changeable nature. Consequently, a person cannot grasp, conceive or even name any thing; the essence of a thing is inaccessible to human knowledge. And if so, then the skeptic not only does not know the essence of a thing, but also does not want to know it, because he still does not know it.

But such a thesis does not mean that a person cannot think or talk about things. Or that the thing does not have an essence. Reasoning about things and the essence of things is not at all forbidden, but one should remember that when reasoning about things, a person is, in fact, reasoning about phenomena of things, and not about the things themselves and their essences. Thus, a person reasons, thinks and talks about apparent existence. In other words, a person should not deceive himself that he is capable of cognizing the world - he is capable of cognizing only the phenomena of the world, only what seems to him.

That is why Sextus Empiricus constantly “refrains” from judgment, which is considered one of the most characteristic features teachings of skepticism. In fact, Sextus Empiricus expresses judgments and often very categorical ones. But the problem is that his judgments themselves are also only “apparent” judgments, which in no case are either true or false. Moreover, the very statement of a judgment is not a judgment in essence, but only what “seems” to be a statement.

This method of thinking is carried over by skeptics into the field of ethics. The doctrine of universal appearance and universal abstinence among skeptics has nothing in common with the denial of life, with withdrawal from the world. According to Sextus Empiricus, living in accordance with the phenomena of life, i.e. in accordance with what appears and does not actually exist, for what actually is is unknown to us. Therefore, Sextus Empiricus, in principle, refuses to judge “good” and “bad,” for, even while experiencing hardship and suffering, the skeptic is indifferent to everything and evaluates absolutely nothing in a good or bad sense. Skeptics, like all people, live and think, they deal with both good and evil, but refuse to express their opinion about it.

NEO-EPICUREAN

TITUS LUCRETIUS CAR

The Roman poet and philosopher Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 99–55 BC) lived in difficult and harsh times - during the dictatorship of Sulla, the struggle between Sulla and Marius, and the slave uprising under the leadership of Spartacus. But we know very little about the philosopher himself. Neither his place of birth, nor his social origin, nor his position in society is known. We know that Lucretius is his family name, Titus is his proper name, and Kar is his nickname. It is also known that Lucretius committed suicide by throwing himself on his sword.

But the main work of Lucretius, the poem “On the Nature of Things,” has been preserved, almost in full. It is interesting that nothing was known about this poem in Europe for many centuries. Its first publication took place only in 1473. The poem consists of six books and is a story by the author to a certain interlocutor - Memmius, whom the author sometimes addresses by name. One of the merits of Lucretius is that he introduced the word “matter” (lat. materies) into philosophical circulation by analogy from the Latin word mater - “mother”.

Lucretius is the original interpreter of Epicurus' atomistic materialism. Like Epicurus, he sought to create a philosophy that would give man a difficult-to-achieve equanimity and serenity of existence.

Therefore, like Epicurus, Lucretius was a supporter of atomistic materialism, recognizing that everything in the world consists of atoms. Atoms are the origins. Nothing is born from nothing, all things arise from atoms, which are eternal. All worlds arise from the movement of a stream of countless, invisible and intangible atoms. The reason for the movement of atoms and the entire universe is a natural necessity.

In addition to the fact that bodies are made of atoms, souls are also made of them. Unlike the atoms that make up the body, the atoms of the soul are smaller. Round, smooth and movable. The cohesion of atoms exists only as long as the connection of the atoms of the body exists. With the death of a person, the atoms of the soul also scatter.

Popularizing Epicurus, Lucretius asserts the existence of a plurality of worlds, as well as the fact that the gods are unable to influence human life. Lucretius does not completely deny the existence of the gods, but assigns them empty spaces between worlds where the gods lead a blissful existence. They can neither help nor harm, nor threaten, nor lure people with promises of their protection, for nature did not arise as a result of the creation of the gods and is not governed by them, but by necessity.

Lucretius repeats the ethical teachings of Epicurus. He argues that the greatest enemies of human happiness are the fear of death and the fear of the gods, and both of these fears dominate man. From the point of view of the atomist Lucretius, these fears are unfounded. The gods, as Lucretius claims, do not play a leading role in human life and do not influence it.

There is no need to be afraid of death because the human soul dies simultaneously with the body and does not move to some afterlife and terrible world, which also does not exist. Consequently, after death, a person will not experience either physical or mental pain, he will not have any melancholy and no desire for goods. Lucretius also understands that people are tormented by the knowledge that they will not exist in the future. But he objects - we don’t care much that we weren’t in the past, so why should we worry about what we won’t be in the future? After all, we will not know any sadness in the future, just as we did not know it in the past. And in general, according to Lucretius, death is the same natural phenomenon of nature as life.

NEOPLATONISM

DAM

III century AD - This is the period of formation of Christian theology. But at the same time, the last major philosophical system of antiquity arose - Neoplatonism. At the origins of Neoplatonism is Ammonius Sacca, who created at the turn of the 2nd–3rd centuries. own school in Alexandria. His most famous student was Plotinus (205–270).

Plotinus was born in the Roman province of Egypt in the city of Lycopolis. At the age of 28, he began attending lectures by Ammonius, with whom he did not leave for 11 years. As fate would have it, in 244 Plotinus ended up in Rome, where he opened his own school. Plotinus' lectures enjoyed unprecedented popularity among the Romans. Emperor Gallienus and his wife Solonina were so captivated by the ideas of Plotinus that they promised to found a city of philosophers - Platonopolis. This project, however, was never realized.

Plotinus left behind a significant literary legacy. His student Porfiry collected together all 54 treatises of the teacher, dividing nine into six groups. This is where the name of Plotinus's works came from - "Enneads" ("ennea" in Greek - nine). The Enneads, along with Plato's dialogues and Aristotle's works, are true masterpieces of ancient philosophy.

Plotinus himself did not claim any originality, considering himself an interpreter of Plato's teachings. In fact, his philosophy is based on the most important provisions of the Platonic system, which is why Plotinus’ philosophy itself is called Neoplatonism.

However, Plotinus brought it to logical conclusion Plato's teaching about the ideal, which actually constitutes the originality of Plotinus's own philosophical worldview.

The main thing in Neoplatonism is the doctrine of the otherworldliness and super-intelligence of the principles of the universe. According to Plotinus, the beginning and basis of the universe is a certain One - infinite and immaterial. One is not only an ideal origin, but also something that unites the world in its everyday life, for any creature in our world remains itself only thanks to the presence of this unity. The One is an absolutely ideal concept, not subject to our feelings and comprehended exclusively by reason and faith. “Any word that you utter,” said Plotinus, “already expresses something, ... the only expression - “beyond everything” - corresponds to the true meaning.”

The One does not depend on anything, does not strive for anything, for it exists on its own: “It does not lack anything, it is sufficient for itself, it does not need anything.” The One is the eternal Good, self-producing Good, knowing no Evil. In fact, the One is God, “the potency of all things.” The One God is so self-sufficient that, being the potency of all things, it does not need the real things themselves.

However, from the One comes a certain activity, which Plotinus calls light. Activity begins to create hypostases of the One, i.e. to give birth to something similar to the One. Thus, from the One, as from the first highest reality, comes the second, which Plotinus calls “Nos” - Mind. Mind is Thinking in itself. The main task of the Mind is to be aware of itself. The mind has, as it were, two sides: with one side it is turned to the One, and here it is one, undivided; and the other side is turned away from the One and here the Mind is plural. Ultimately, the Mind is the totality of all ideas, a kind of Platonic world of ideas.

Activity flowing from the One and already becoming the activity of the Mind, creates the third hypostasis - the World Soul. The Soul, in relation to the Mind, also has two sides - facing the Mind and turning away from it. The peculiarity of the World Soul is that it is no longer pure thinking, but a force that gives life to everything sensory and controls it.

The World Soul has, as it were, three dimensions: the “highest Soul”, as one of the hypostases of the Mind, and, accordingly, the One; "The soul of all", defining the cosmos and the physical world; and, a kind of “lower” Soul, which animates all living things in the sensory world.

The World Soul stands, as it were, between the supersensible and sensory worlds. According to Plotinus, the real, physical world arises as a consequence of the activity of the One, emanating in this case from the World Soul. This activity, fading and exhausting, gives rise to matter, time and space. And in this sense, the material, sensory world is just the outskirts of the World Soul. The material world is not just secondary, as Plato said about it, it is just a remnant of the activity of the One. And if the activity of the One is existence, then the material world is almost non-existence, almost nothing, because it is deprived of the true light of the One.

Therefore, the material world is the only one in the entire universe that arose from the One, where Evil is present. All things of this world are only reflections of ideas that exist in the Mind, but distorted, untrue reflections, and therefore possessing, on the one hand, a part of the One, and on the other hand, not knowing their unity, and, due to imperfection and materiality, being Evil, for matter itself is already a source of Evil.

Man is also dual in nature. The main component of a person is his soul, which is a piece of the World Soul. The material body, although it is a product and servant of the soul, is at the same time the source of everything evil, everything imperfect in man.

The main life task of a person is “reunion with the One,” which he can accomplish thanks to the presence of his own soul. The path of reunification is the path of “simplification”. “Throw off everything,” Plotinus said aphoristically. To throw off everything does not mean to destroy oneself as a physical organism, but to fill oneself with God to such an extent that the divine completely begins to dominate the physical nature of the human body.

And then comes the mystical unity with God the One, which Plotinus called “ecstasy”: “You grow yourself, throwing away everything else... and if there are no other things next to you, then you have left them. You are not leaving Him, (He is always there), and you don’t go somewhere, but by staying, you have already converted..."

The doctrine created by Plotinus, despite the initial hostility between Neoplatonism and Christianity, turned out to be very close in spirit to Christian theology. The idea of the trinity of principles (the One, the Mind, the World Soul) corresponded to the Christian idea of the Holy Trinity; the call for reunification in the One seemed to coincide with the Christian preaching of “life in Christ,” etc. For many people of that time, the path to Christianity passed through the study of Neoplatonic philosophy. And subsequently, the main elements of Neoplatonism were used by Christian thinkers to create Christian philosophy itself.

Man of Antiquity Rome

OPI group - 13

Student Kozhevnikov A.O.

Teacher Rukoleeva R.T.

Ekaterinburg

Introduction. 3

Philosophy of ancient Rome. 4

Stoicism. 4

Skepticism. 8

The ideal of a Roman citizen. 9

Conclusion. 12

For notes. 13

References.. 14

Introduction

Ancient Rome - these words are associated with military and economic power, strict laws, the art of politicians, literary masterpieces and monumental construction.

The Romans left behind many books telling about their empire and the lives of its citizens. Ancient Roman authors showed the world as they saw it, bringing personal feelings and ideas into their work.

Roman culture and education developed under completely different conditions than those that existed several centuries earlier in Greece. Roman campaigns directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of mature civilizations, and on the other, in the territory of “barbarian” tribes) form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking.

Natural, technical, medical, political and legal sciences developed successfully, becoming the basis of the modern world.

The history of Rome remains interesting and important also because modern leaders and philosophers can learn from its lessons. From the history of Rome we learn about many personal qualities of people worthy of imitation, as well as examples of actions and relationships that people would like to avoid.

Philosophy of ancient Rome

From the beginning of the 3rd century BC. In the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome significantly increases, which from a city republic becomes a strong power. In the 2nd century BC. he already owns for the most part ancient world.In 146 BC. The cities of continental Greece came under the influence of Rome. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture, of which philosophy was an integral part, began to penetrate into Rome. Therefore, Roman philosophy is formed under the influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking of three schools - Stoicism, Epicureanism and skepticism.

Stoicism

During the Roman Empire, the teachings of the Stoics turned into a kind of religion for the people, and for the entire empire. It is sometimes considered the only philosophical movement that acquired a new sound during the Roman period.

Its beginnings can already be seen in the influence of Deogenes and Antipater, who arrived in Rome with the Athenian embassy. A famous role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was played by Panepius and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit lies in the fact that they contributed to the widespread spread of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. The most prominent representations of Roman Stoicism were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca comes from the “horsemen” class, received a natural science, legal and philosophical education, and practiced law for a relatively long period. Later he becomes the tutor of the future Emperor Nero. Epictetus was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. Marcus Aurelius, a Roman emperor from the Antonine dynasty, was the last representative of ancient stoicism.

At the end of the 4th century BC. In Greece, Stoicism was formed, which became one of the most widespread philosophical movements. Its founder was Zeno. In Athens he became acquainted with post-Socratic philosophy and in 300 BC. founds his own school.

Zeno was the first to proclaim about the treatise On Human Nature that the main goal is “to live in accordance with nature, and this is the same thing as living in accordance with virtue.” In this way he gave Stoic philosophy its basic orientation. From Zeno also comes an effort to combine the three parts of philosophy (logic, physics and ethics) into one coherent system. They famously compare philosophy to an orchard: logic corresponds to the fence that protects it, physics is the growing tree, and ethics is the fruit.

The Stoics characterized philosophy as "an exercise in wisdom." They considered logic to be a tool of philosophy, its main part. It teaches how to handle concepts, form judgments and inferences. Without it one cannot understand either physics or ethics.

The basis of knowledge, according to their views, is sensory perception, which is caused by specific, individual things. The general exists only through the individual.

The center and carrier of knowledge, according to Stoic philosophy, is the soul. It is understood as something bodily, material. Sometimes it is referred to as pneuma (a combination of air and fire). Its central part, in which the ability to think is localized, is called reason by the Stoics. Reason connects a person with the whole world. The individual mind is part of the world mind.

The Stoics recognize two basic principles: the material principle (material), which is considered basic, and the spiritual principle - logos (god), which penetrates all matter and forms concrete individual things. Just as reason rules over man, so in the world the world reason is logos (god). He is the source and determining factor in the development of the world. Things, as controlled by God, should obey him. Things and events are repeated after each periodic ignition and purification of the cosmos.

Stoic philosophy places virtue at the pinnacle of human endeavor. Virtue, in their view, is the only good. According to the Stoics, “virtue can be the simple completion of anything, mental or physical.” Virtue means living in accordance with reason.

The Stoics recognize four cardinal virtues: prudence, moderation, justice, and valor. To the four basic virtues are added four opposites: rationality - unreasonableness, moderation - licentiousness, justice - injustice, and valor - cowardice. There is a clear distinction between good and evil, between virtue and sin.

The Stoics classify everything else as indifferent things. A person cannot influence things, but he can “rise above” them. This position reveals a moment of “resignation to fate.” Man must submit to the cosmic order; he must not desire what is not in his power.

“If you want your children, your wife and your friends to live permanently, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in your power and that what is alien to be yours. Don’t wish for everything to happen as you want, but wish for everything to happen as it happens, and everything will be fine for you in life.”

The ideal of Stoic aspirations is peace, or at least indifferent patience. The meaning of life is to achieve absolute peace of mind. The life in which a person devotes all or the overwhelming majority of his efforts to his own improvement, the life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activities, is the most worthy.

“I just want to warn you about one thing: do not act like those who do not want to improve, but only to be visible, and do not make anything conspicuous in your clothing or lifestyle. Avoid appearing untidy, with an uncut head and unshaven beard, showing off your hatred of silver, making a bed on bare ground - in a word, everything that is done for the sake of the perverted satisfaction of your own vanity. After all, the very name of philosophy evokes enough hatred, even if one lives contrary to human customs. Let us be different from the inside in everything, but from the outside we should not be different from people.”

It is Stoic philosophy that most adequately reflects “its time.” This is the philosophy of “conscious refusal”, conscious resignation to fate. It diverts attention from the outside world, from society to inner world person. Only within himself can a person find the main and only support.

“Look into your insides! There, inside, is a source of goodness that can flow without drying up if you constantly dig into it.”

Marcus Aurelius

Skepticism

At the end of the 4th century BC. In Greek philosophy, another philosophical trend, less widespread than its predecessors, was formed - Stoicism. Its founder was Pyrrho.

In the Hellenistic era, its principles were formed, for skepticism was determined not by methodological principles in the impossibility of further knowledge, but by the refusal of the opportunity to reach the truth. Skepticism denied the truth of any knowledge. And this refusal becomes the basis of the teaching.

Achieving happiness, according to Pyrrho, means achieving ataraxia (equanimity, composure, calmness). This state of affairs is the result of the answer to three questions. First: “What are things made of?” It is impossible to answer because no thing is “this is more than the other.” Second: “How should we feel about these things?” Based on the previous answer, the only honorable attitude towards things was considered to be “abstaining from any judgment.” Third: “What benefit will we get from this attitude towards things?” If we refrain from any judgment about things, then we will achieve stable and undisturbed peace. It is in this that skeptics see the highest level of possible bliss.

The main representative of skepticism in Rome was Sextus Empiricus. He sets out the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar and many other sciences. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism. In essence, skepticism contains more direct rejection than methodological criticism.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of progressive Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of valuable things, in general it is already a philosophy that has lost the spiritual power that raised ancient thinking to its heights.

From the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. In the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome significantly increases, which from a city republic becomes a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part of the ancient world. The cities of continental Greece also fall under its economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture, of which philosophy was an integral part, began to penetrate into Rome. Roman culture and education developed under completely different conditions than those that existed several centuries earlier in Greece. Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of mature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other, in the territory of “barbarian” tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. Natural and technical sciences have successfully developed, political and legal sciences are reaching an unprecedented scale. This is due to the fact that Roman philosophy is also formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking. A definite impetus for the expansion of Greek philosophy in Rome was the visit of Athenian ambassadors, among whom were the most prominent representatives of the Greek philosophical schools existing at that time (mid-2nd century BC).

From about this time, three philosophical trends developed in Rome, which had already been formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and skepticism.

Stoicism. Stoicism became most widespread both in republican and later in imperial Rome. It is sometimes considered the only philosophical movement that acquired a new sound during the Roman period. Its beginnings can already be seen in the influence of Diogenes from Seleucia and Antipater from Tarsus (who arrived in Rome with the mentioned Athenian embassy). A significant role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was also played by representatives of the Middle Stoa - Panaetius of Rhodes and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit lies in the fact that they contributed to the widespread spread of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. Among Panetius' students were such outstanding personalities of Ancient Rome as Scipio the Younger and Cicero. Panaetius largely adhered to the old Stoicism in the main provisions of his teaching. Thus, he encounters the concept of logos, which is similar to the concept, for example, of Chrysippus, who adhered to similar ontological views. In the field of ethics, he brought the ideal of the Stoic sage somewhat closer to practical life.

The further development of Roman Stoicism was greatly influenced by Posidonius. In the field of ontology, he develops the basic philosophical problems of Aristotle's teachings, as well as issues bordering on natural science problems and cosmology. He combines the original philosophical and ethical views of Greek Stoicism with elements of the teachings of Plato, and in some cases with Pythagorean mysticism. (This shows a certain eclecticism that was typical of Roman philosophy of that period.)

The most prominent representatives of Roman Stoicism (new Stoicism) were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca (c. 4 BC - 65 AD) came from the “horsemen” class28, received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, and successfully practiced law for a relatively long period. Later he becomes the tutor of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social position and honors. In the second year of Nero's power, he dedicates to him the treatise “On Mercy,” in which he calls on Nero as a ruler to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit.

As Seneca grows in prestige and wealth, he comes into conflict with his surroundings. After the fire in 64 AD. e. hatred of Seneca in Rome grows. He leaves the city and lives on his nearby estate. Accused of plotting, he was forced to commit suicide.

Seneca's legacy is very extensive. His most outstanding works include “Letters to Lucilius”, “Discourse on Providence”, “On the Fortitude of the Philosopher”, “On Anger”, “On a Happy Life”, “On Leisure Time”, “On Virtue”, etc. For With the exception of "Questions of Nature", all his works are devoted to ethical problems. If the old stoa considered physics to be the soul, then the philosophy of the new stoa considers it a completely subordinate area.

In his views on nature (as well as in other parts of his work), Seneca, however, in principle adheres to the teachings of the old stand. This is manifested, for example, in the materialistically oriented dualism of matter and form. Mind is considered to be the active principle which gives form to matter. At the same time, the primacy of matter is clearly recognized. He also understands the soul (pneuma) in the spirit of old Stoicism, as a very subtle matter, a mixture of the elements of fire and air.

In epistemology, Seneca, like other representatives of Stoicism, is a supporter of ancient sensationalism. He emphasizes that reason has its origin in feelings. When addressing the issue of the activity of the soul, he, however, accepts some elements of Platonic philosophy, which is manifested primarily in the recognition of the immortality of the soul and the characterization of corporeality as the “shackles” of the soul.

Seneca proceeds from the fact that everything in the world and in the universe is subject to the power of strict necessity. This follows from his concept of God as an immanent, ruling force that rules over reason (logos). Seneca characterizes it as “the highest good and the highest wisdom,” which is realized in the harmony of the world and its purposeful structure.

In contrast to the old Stoicism, Seneca (as well as all Roman Stoicism) almost does not deal with logical problems. The center and focus of his system is ethics. The main principle that stands out is the principle of harmony with nature (to live happily means to live in accordance with nature) and the principle of human subordination to fate. His treatises “On the brevity of life” and “On a happy life” are devoted to the question of how to live life. They are projected as personal experience Seneca, and the social relations of Rome at that time. The loss of civil liberties and the decline of republican virtues during the era of imperial power lead him to significant doubts about the future. “Life is divided into three periods: past, present and future. Of these, the one we live in is short; the one in which we will live is doubtful, and only the one in which We have lived is certain. Only he is stable, fate does not influence him, but no one can return him either.”29 Seneca rejects the desire to accumulate property, to secular honors and positions: “The higher one ascends, the closer he is to falling. Very poor and very short is the life of that person who, with great effort, acquires what he must hold with even greater effort.”30 However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and influential people Rome. When his enemies pointed out the fact that his own life differed very sharply from the ideals that he proclaimed, he answered them in his treatise “On the Happy Life”: “...all philosophers talk not about how they themselves live, but about how how one should live.

I talk about virtue, but not about myself, and I fight against sins, and this means against my own: when I overcome them, I will live as I should” 31.

Seneca sees the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind. One of the main prerequisites for this is overcoming the fear of death. He devotes a lot of space to this issue in his works. In ethics, he continues the line of the old stoa, emphasizing the concept of man as an individual striving for improvement in virtues.

A life in which a person devotes all or the overwhelming majority of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activities, is, according to Seneca, the most worthy. “It is better to seek shelter in a quiet haven than to be voluntarily thrown here and there all your life. Think how many waves you have already been exposed to, how many storms have swept through your private life, how many of them you have unconsciously brought upon yourself in public life! I don’t mean for you to drown your days in sleep and pleasure. I don't call this a full life. Strive to find tasks that are more important than those you have been busy with so far, and believe that it is more important to know the score of your own life than the common good that you have been concerned about until now! If you live like this, communication with wise men, beautiful art, love and the accomplishment of good awaits you; awareness of how well it is to live and one day to die well” 32. His ethical views are imbued with individualism, which is a reaction to the turbulent political life in Rome.

Another prominent representative of Roman Stoicism, Epictetus (50-138), was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. In his views there is a lot from the old Stoa, which influenced him, and from the work of Seneca. He himself did not leave any work. His thoughts were recorded by his student Arrian of Nicomedia in the treatises “Discourses of Epictetus” and “Manual of Epictetus”. Epictetus defended the point of view according to which philosophy, in fact, is not only knowledge, but also application in practical life. He was not an original thinker, his merit mainly lies in the popularization of Stoic philosophy.

In his ontological ideas and in his views in the field of the theory of knowledge, he proceeded from Greek Stoicism. The works of Chrysippus had an exceptional influence on him. The core of Epictetus' philosophy is ethics, based on the Stoic understanding of virtue and living in accordance with the general character of the world.

The study of nature (physics) is important and useful not because on its basis it is possible to change nature (the world around us), but because in accordance with nature a person can organize his life. A person should not desire what he cannot master: “If you want your children, your wife and your friends to live forever, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in yours.” power and so that what is someone else’s is yours” 33. And since it is not within the power of man to change the objective world, society, one should not strive for this.

Epictetus criticizes and condemns the social order of that time. He emphasizes thoughts about the equality of people and condemns slavery. This is how his views differ from the Stoic teachings. The central motive of his philosophy - humility with this reality - leads, however, to passivity. “Do not wish for everything to happen as you want, but wish for everything to happen as it happens, and you will have good things in life” 34.

Epictetus considers reason to be the real essence of man. Thanks to him, a person participates in the general order of the world. Therefore, you should not care about well-being, comfort, and generally about bodily pleasures, but only about your soul.

Just as reason rules over a person, so the world reason - logos (god) - rules in the world. He is the source and determining factor in the development of the world. Things, as controlled by God, should obey him. Epictetus limits freedom and independence, to which he attached great importance, only to spiritual freedom, the freedom of humility with reality.

Epictetus' ethics is essentially rationalistic. And although it is expressively marked by subjectivism, it still protects (in contrast to the irrationalistic movements emerging at that time) the power of the human mind.

In essence, the entire philosophy of Epictetus is an expression of the passive protest of the lower social classes against the existing social order. This protest, however, finds no real outlet. Therefore, it results in a call to come to terms with the existing state of affairs.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) also belongs to the Roman Stoics, during whose reign crisis phenomena became even more intense. The upper social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics they see a certain means of moral revival of society. The Emperor, in his meditation “To Himself,” proclaims that “the only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts.” “Look into your insides! There, inside, is a source of goodness that can flow without drying up if you constantly dig into it.” He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspiration should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to the “reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature.” Marcus Aurelius recommends: “A calm thought in everything that comes from outside, and justice in everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, let your desire and action consist in actions that are generally beneficial, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature.”

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism, and essentially this is where Stoicism ends. His work shows certain traces of mysticism, which is closely associated with the decline of Roman society. Stoic teaching, in particular emphasizing the need to “submit oneself” (to the world mind - logos - god), largely influenced the formation of early Christianity.

Epicureanism. The only materialistic (for its time, distinctly materialistic) philosophy in ancient Rome was Epicureanism, which spread significantly in last years Roman Republic and early imperial rule. Its most outstanding representative was Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 95-55 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem “On Nature,” which is also a valuable work of art of the then literature.

Lucretius completely identifies his views with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; he considered the latter to be the best Greek philosopher. In his work, he skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of atomistic teaching, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism both from earlier and from contemporary opponents, while simultaneously giving the most complete and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Democritus and Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only things that exist.

Matter, first of all, is the primary bodies of things, and secondly, everything that is a collection of the named elements. However, no force can destroy atoms; they always win with their impenetrability. The first is deeply different, those two things, as said above, matter and space, have a dual character, in which everything happens; they are necessary in themselves and pure. Where the emptiness, the so-called space, extends, there are no mothers; and where matter extends, there is no emptiness or space in any way. The first bodies are complete without emptiness. Secondly, in the things that have arisen, emptiness exists, but near it there is solid matter.

In this form, Lucretius expounds the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus about atoms and emptiness, emphasizing at the same time the increasability of matter as such.

If the first bodies are solid and without cavities, as I have already said about this, they are undoubtedly eternal. The indestructibility and uncreateability of matter, i.e., its infinity in time, is associated with the infinity of matter in space.

The universe itself cannot limit itself; truth is the law of nature; he wants the boundaries of matter to be formed by emptiness, and matter - the boundaries of emptiness; the merit of this alternation is the endless universe 39.

Atoms, according to Lucretius, are inherent in motion. In solving the issue of movement, he stands on the principles of Epicurus. He tries in a certain way to justify deviations from the rectilinear motion of atoms.

You should know this about motion: if atoms fall vertically in space due to their own weight, here at an indefinite place and in an indefinite way they deviate from the path - only so much that the direction is slightly different. If this deviation did not exist, everything would fall into the depths of the void, down like raindrops, elements could not collide and combine, and nature would never create anything 40.

From this it follows that Epicurus’s parenchlitic movement is for Lucretius the source of the emergence of particles. Together with the size and shape of atoms, it is the cause of the diversity and variety of things in the world.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the entire body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

What matter the spirit is made of and what it consists of, my words will soon list for you. First of all, I say that the spirit is extremely subtle; the bodies that form it are extremely small. This helps you understand and you will understand that: nothing happens in the world as quickly as what the thought itself imagines and forms. From this it is clear that the spirit has a greater speed than everything that is accessible to the eye; but what is also movable, it probably consists of bodies that are completely round and very small 41.

In a similar way, he defends atomistic views in the field of the theory of knowledge, which he also developed in many directions.

In Lucretius's understanding of the atomic theory one can already find hints of evolutionism. He held the view that everything organic arose from the inorganic and that complex organic species developed from the simplest.

Lucretius tries to explain in a natural way the emergence of society. He says that initially people lived in a “semi-wild state”, without fire or shelter. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd gradually turns into a society. Naturally, he could not come to a materialistic understanding of the reasons for the emergence and development of human society. His desire for a “natural” explanation was limited by both social and epistemological parameters. However, despite this, his views on society were, in particular, significant progress in comparison with the then idealistic approach. Like Epicurus, he believed that society, public organization(law, laws) arise as a product of mutual agreement of people (the theory of contract): The neighbors then began to unite in friendship, No longer wanting to create lawlessness and quarrel, and children and the female sex were taken under protection, showing with gestures and awkward sounds that they were weak everyone should have empathy. Although agreement could not be universally recognized, the best and most part of the agreement religiously carried out 42.

Lucretius's materialism also has its atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes any belief in gods. He criticizes the idea of life after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes. In particular, he points to the epistemological origins of the emergence of religious ideas (discovering the social roots of religion was, naturally, impossible in his time).

In the field of ethics, Lucretius consistently defends the Epicurean principles of a calm and happy life. The means to achieve happiness is knowledge. For a person to live happily, he must free himself from fear, in particular from the fear of the gods. He defended these views both from Stoic and skeptical criticism, and from their vulgarization in the understanding of some supporters of Epicureanism from the highest circles of society.

The influence and spread of Lucretius’s consistently materialistic and logically integral philosophical system was undoubtedly facilitated by the artistic form of presentation. The poem “On Nature” belongs not only to the peaks of Roman philosophical thinking, but also to the highly artistic works of its period.

Epicureanism persisted in Roman society for a relatively long time. Even in the era of Aurelian, the Epicurean school was among the most influential philosophical movements. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity becomes the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle begins against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

Roman Epicureanism, in particular the work of Lucretius Cara, marked the pinnacle of materialist tendencies in Roman philosophy. He became a mediating link between the materialism of the ancient Greek Stoics and the materialistic trends of modern philosophy.

Skepticism. Another significant philosophical trend in ancient Rome was skepticism. Its main representative, Aenesidemus from Knossos (c. 1st century BC), is close in his views to the philosophy of Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Aenesidemus’ thoughts is evidenced by the fact that he devoted his main work to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho (“Eight Books of Pyrrho’s Discourses”).

Aenesidemus saw in skepticism the path to overcoming the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion from his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on immediate sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he uses the formulations of the so-called tropes, which have already been discussed.

The next five tropes, which were added by Agrippa, the successor of Aenesidemus, further strengthened doubts about the correctness of the ideas of other philosophical movements.

The most prominent representative of the so-called younger skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - “Fundamentals of Pyrrhonism”. In other works - “Against Dogmatists”, “Against Mathematicians” - he sets out the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism.

In his works, he seeks to prove that skepticism is an original philosophy that does not allow confusion with other philosophical movements. Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism differs from all other philosophical movements, each of which recognizes some essences and excludes others, in that it simultaneously questions and admits all essences.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of valuable things, in general it is already a philosophy that has lost the spiritual power that raised ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more direct rejection than methodological criticism.

Eclecticism. Eclecticism became much more widespread and important in Rome than in Hellenistic Greece. Its supporters include a number of prominent figures in Roman political and cultural life, both in the last years of the Roman Republic and in the first period of the empire. The most famous among them was the outstanding politician and orator Marcus Tulius Cicero (106-45 BC), the creator of Latin philosophical terminology.

Representatives of Roman eclecticism possessed a colossal amount of knowledge. In a number of cases they were genuine encyclopedists of their era. Their combination of various philosophical schools was not accidental or groundless; a certain conceptual approach was strengthened precisely by a deep knowledge of individual views. The gradual rapprochement of theory with the field of ethics expressed the general situation in philosophy.

Eclecticism, developing on the basis of academic philosophy, reaches the boundaries of encyclopedicism, covering the knowledge of both nature and society. Cicero belonged to perhaps the most significant movement of Roman eclecticism, which developed on the basis of Stoic philosophy.

“Stoic” eclecticism as presented by Cicero focuses on social issues, and in particular on ethics. His motive was to combine those parts of various philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.

Cicero's social views reflect his position as a representative upper layers Roman society during the republican period. He sees the best social structure in a combination of three main government forms: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He considers the goal of the state to be ensuring citizens' security and free use of property. His theoretical views were largely influenced by his actual political activities.

In ethics, he largely adopts the views of the Stoics and pays considerable attention to the problems of virtue presented by the Stoics. He considers man to be a rational being who has something divine in him. Virtue is the overcoming of all life's adversities by willpower. Philosophy provides invaluable services to a person in this matter. Each of the philosophical directions comes to achieving virtue in its own way. Therefore, Cicero recommends “combining” everything that is the contribution of individual philosophical schools, all their achievements into one whole. By this, in fact, he defends his eclecticism.

Neoplatonism. The progressive crisis of Roman society in the last years of the republic and in the first years of the empire is naturally reflected in philosophy. Distrust of the rational development of the world, manifested to a greater or lesser extent in various philosophical directions, together with the growing influence of Christianity, increasingly strengthened the growing signs of mysticism. The irrational trends of this era tried in different ways to adapt to the changing role of philosophy. Neo-Pythagorean philosophy, typified by Apollonius of Tyana, tried to strengthen itself through a return to the mysticism of numbers, bordering on charlatanism; the philosophy of Philo of Alexandria (30s BC - 50 AD) sought to combine Greek philosophy with the Jewish religion. In both concepts, mysticism appears in a concentrated form.

More interesting was Neoplatonism, which developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism is formed in the same social environment as Christianity. Like other irrationalist philosophical movements of late antiquity, Neoplatonism is to a certain extent a manifestation of the rejection of the rationalism of previous philosophical thinking. It is a specific reflection of social hopelessness and the progressive decay of social relations on which the Roman Empire was based. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and its most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270) 43.

Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is the supersensible, supernatural, supra-rational divine principle. All forms of existence depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says of it that it is unknowable. “This being is and remains God, does not exist outside of him, but is precisely his very identity” 44. This only true being is understandable only by penetrating into the very center of pure contemplation and pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the “rejection” of thought - ecstasy (extasis). Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being. Nature, according to Plotinus, is created in such a way that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existences from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation stands the divine principle, next is the divine soul, and below all is nature.

Simplifying somewhat, we can say that Plotinus’ divine principle is an absolutization and some deformation of the world of Plato’s ideas. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. For him it is a definite transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external to them. This understanding of the soul distinguishes the views of Plotinus from the views of not only the Epicureans, but also the Greek and Roman Stoics. According to Plotinus, the soul is not organically connected with the body. She is part of the common soul. The corporeal is a tether of the soul, worthy only of overcoming. “Plotinus, as it were, pushes aside the corporeal, sensory and is not interested in explaining its existence, but wants only to cleanse it from it, so that the universal soul and our soul do not suffer damage”45. The emphasis on the “spiritual” (good) leads him to the complete suppression of everything bodily and material (evil). This results in the preaching of asceticism. When Plotinus speaks about the material and sensory world, he characterizes it as an inauthentic being, as a non-existent, “having in itself a certain image of an existing” 46. By its nature, an inauthentic being has no form, properties and any signs. This solution to the main philosophical problems of Plotinus marks his ethics. The principle of good is connected with the only truly existing thing - with the divine mind, or soul. On the contrary, the opposite of good - evil is associated and identified with inauthentic being, that is, with the sensory world. From these positions, Plotinus also approaches the problems of the theory of knowledge. For him, the only true knowledge is the knowledge of true being, that is, the divine principle. The latter, of course, cannot be comprehended by sensory knowledge; it is also not knowable in a rational way. Plotinus considers (as already mentioned) the only way to approach the divine principle to be ecstasy, which is achieved only by spiritual effort - mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.

The philosophy of Plotinus specifically expresses the hopelessness and insolubility of contradictions 47, which become all-encompassing. This is the most expressive harbinger of the end of ancient culture.

Plotinus's direct student and continuator of his teachings was Porphyry (c. 232-304). He showed great attention to the study of Plotinus's works, published and commented on them, and compiled a biography of Plotinus. Porfnry was also engaged in the study of problems of logic, as evidenced by his “Introduction to Aristotle’s Categories,” which marked the beginning of a dispute about the real existence of the general.

The mystical teachings of Plotinus are continued by two other Neoplatonic schools. One of them is the Syrian school, the founder and most prominent representative of which was Iamblichus (late 3rd - early 4th century AD). From the surviving part of his large creative heritage, it can be judged that in addition to the traditional range of problems of Neoplatonic philosophy, he was also occupied with other problems, such as mathematics, astronomy, music theory, etc.

In philosophy, he develops the thoughts of Plotinus concerning the divine principle, reason and soul. Among these Plotinian essences, he distinguishes other, transitional ones.

His attempt to substantiate ancient polytheism in the spirit of Plotinus’ philosophy is also worthy of attention. Along with the divine principle as the only truly existing one, he also recognizes a number of other deities (12 heavenly gods, the number of which he then increases to 36 and further to 360; then there are 72 earthly gods and 42 gods of nature). This is essentially a mystical-epeculative attempt to preserve the ancient image of the world in the face of the coming Christianity.

Another school of Neoplatonism - Athenian - is represented by Proclus (412-485). His work, in a certain sense, is the completion and systematization of Neoplatonic philosophy. He fully accepts the philosophy of Plotinus, but in addition he publishes and interprets Plato's dialogues, in the comments to which he expresses original observations and conclusions.

It should be noted that Proclus gives the clearest explanation and presentation of the principle of the dialectical triad 48, in which he distinguishes three main moments of development: 1. The content of the created in the creator. 2. Separation of what has already been created from what is creating. 3. Return of the created to the creator. The conceptual dialectic of ancient Neoplatonism is marked by mysticism, which reaches its peak in this concept. Both Neoplatonic schools deepen and systematically develop the basic ideas of Plotinus's mysticism. This philosophy, with its irrationalism, aversion to everything corporeal, emphasis on asceticism and the doctrine of ecstasy, had a significant influence not only on early Christian philosophy, but also on medieval theological thinking. We have traced the emergence and development of ancient philosophy. In it, for the first time, almost all the main philosophical problems crystallized, the basic ideas about the subject of philosophy were formed and, although not explicitly, the problem was posed, which F. Engels formulated as the main question of philosophy. In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which largely influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. V.I. Lenin stated that the history of philosophy has always been an arena of struggle between two main directions - materialism and idealism. The spontaneity and, in a certain sense, straightforwardness of the philosophical thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to realize and more easily understand the essence the most important problems, which accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day. In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, ideological clashes and struggles were projected in a much clearer form than happens later. The initial unity of philosophy and expanding special scientific knowledge, their systematic identification explain very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (private) sciences. Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society; it was an integral factor of ancient culture. The wealth of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solutions were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

The philosophy of Ancient Rome (from the 3rd century BC) developed under the strong influence of Greek culture. It was represented mainly by three movements: Stoicism, Epicureanism and skepticism. The leading role among them was played by Stoic philosophy (Seneca Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius).

Seneca("uncle of Christianity") was the most prominent figure in roman stoicism. He pursued the idea that everything in this world is under the rule of strict necessity and predetermination. God as the supreme power (“active mind”) gives the world integrity, order and purpose. God is what everything depends on and comes from. God is nature, reason, cause and destiny. The world is literally bound by the iron chains of necessity, or fate. Consequently, human freedom can only consist in awareness of this necessity and voluntary submission to it. But since the world is reasonable, then freedom should consist in subordination only to reasonable necessity. In all other cases, freedom will certainly mean slavery. Obedience to fate is the lot of every person if he does not want to fall into slavery. To live happily means for Seneca to live in harmony with the world around him, obediently submitting to it.

A person’s existence is always short and fleeting, therefore, according to the philosopher, one should not strive for dubious goals: accumulating wealth and gaining power in society. It is much more important to improve your soul, overcome the fear of impending death and find peace. It is best to seek shelter in a “quiet backwater” rather than expose yourself to the “blows of the waves” in the stormy and always restless ocean of life. Seneca believed that relationships in society should be imbued with moral values. Society is a single whole, and it must be supported by the love, compassion and care of people for each other. As in the world as a whole, in society it is impossible to change the order of things, so everyone must treat each other as fellow slaves. Based on This circumstance, Seneca formulated the “golden rule” of morality: “Treat those below you as you would like to be treated by those above you." All people in reality are slaves of fate. At the same time, they are equally free, since they "It is given to control your soul and your thoughts. In this sense, prison is not an obstacle for a person, Seneca naively believed. Freedom of spirit is what attracts a person to the truly great and eternal."

Epictetus(former slave) emphasized that the main task of any philosophy is to help a person properly organize his life. The world it is almost impossible to change, and therefore all that remains is to take care of people’s relationships with each other. You should submit to the order of things in the world and focus on the states of your soul. According to Epictetus, it is important, first of all, to honor the gods and believe in them, not to interfere in current events, but to obey them. The world was created by God and therefore reasonable, which is why each individual person can only exist for the sake of the whole and obey it.

Marcus Aurelius(Roman Emperor), like all the Stoics, believed that human freedom is limited only by the space of his thoughts. This is the only thing that is in his power. The main task of all human actions should be subordination to the cosmic order of things. Man is just a particle of the endless world flow. His whole life is a short moment, struggle and wandering through a foreign land. Life is smoke, and only philosophy can give a person consolation and tranquility. If fate rules, then why resist it? Man is mortal, his life is completely incomparable with the endless and rapid flow of time. Both the longest and the most short life equally vulnerable to this all-consuming and merciless stream. There is only one choice left: to live in the present, since the past has been lived and the future is unknown.

Epicureanism was represented in Ancient Rome mainly by the “works of the philosopher-poet Tita Lucretia Cara(poem “On the Nature of Things”). Lucretius was a consistent supporter of the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus, defending their atomic theory. In his poem, he wrote about the gods, about the soul and its properties, about human physiology and his knowledge of the world. Matter for Lucretius is a world of moving atoms. It is uncreated and indestructible by anyone, infinite in time and space. Atoms, as certain “building blocks” of the world, have different sizes and form, which explains the diversity of the world. The human soul is also material, being created from air and heat. The spirit, according to Lucretius, is very subtle and has the greatest speed.

Studying social life, Lucretius recorded the presence of progress in it. Thus, he noted that in the primitive state, people were essentially in a wild state and did not yet have either fire or shelter. Over time, the primitive herd acquired signs of society. It gradually formed such important institutions as morality and law. However, human dependence on natural and social forces still remains, which gives rise to religious faith. Ignorance and fear gave birth to gods, the Roman philosopher emphasized. To make people happy, they need to be freed from the feeling of fear of the gods, and they can be helped in this matter various sciences(including philosophy).

The philosophy of Lucretius, like all Epicureanism, was oriented towards explaining the world from the standpoint of common sense and natural science. The teachings of this ancient educator brought people knowledge and self-confidence, helped them overcome prejudices and misconceptions.

Roman skepticism was introduced by several famous thinkers. The most prominent among them was Sextus Empiricus, a physician by profession. He made a great contribution to the study of the history of skepticism and its systematization (works “Against the Scientists”, “Pyrrhonian Principles”). As in Greece, Roman skepticism expressed the crisis of society and carried within itself mainly the charge of criticism of knowledge.

In ancient Rome, there was also eclecticism, which united diverse teachings and schools. Among its authors, Marcus Tulius Cicero, an outstanding political figure, orator, and philosopher, stood out. In his work, he addressed, first of all, social issues, being committed to the best traditions of Greek philosophy. According to Cicero, the main task of philosophy is “cultivating the human soul,” teaching him the art of right life and developing the qualities of a citizen. Philosophy is wisdom, the knowledge of good and evil, and therefore none of the fools can ever become a happy person.

Ancient Roman society had a rich science and culture for those times. The poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid gained worldwide fame. The grandiose architectural complexes of the Colosseum and Pantheon were erected in Rome. That time produced famous historians - Josephus Flavius, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus. In the first half of the 2nd century AD. An outstanding astronomer, mathematician and philosopher Claudius Ptolemy lived in Rome. The famous physician Galen (“Roman Hippocrates”), the author of the doctrine of the movement of blood in the human body, also worked in Rome.

The philosophy of Ancient Rome completes the development of philosophical thought in the era of crisis and collapse of the slaveholding formation. In the depths of this philosophy and on its “shards” the ideological prerequisites for the emergence of early Christianity as a new religion, a picture of the surrounding world and man in it, were formed.

QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL

1. What processes and phenomena of social life “fed” development philosophical thought in the Ancient World?

2. What can you say about the subject field (range of problems) of ancient philosophy? What is characteristic of him?

3. What did cosmocentrism mean in ancient Greek philosophy?

4. Is it possible to talk about the availability of ancient philosophy elements of scientific knowledge about man?

5. What is the ideological and methodological significance of ancient Greek philosophy?

RELATED LITERATURE

1. Asmus V.F. Ancient philosophy. - 2nd ed. - M., 1976.

2 Bogomolov A.S. Ancient philosophy. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1985.

3. Dzhokhadze D.V. The main stages in the development of ancient philosophy. - M., 1977.

4. Ivanov G. R. History of ethics Ancient world. - L.: Leningrad State University, 1980. 5 Cassidy F.H. From myth to logos (The formation of Greek philosophy). - M.: Mysl, 1972. “

6. Kun N.A. Legends and myths of Ancient Greece. - M.: Vika-press, Ark-tos, 1992.

7. Losev A F. History of ancient philosophy in a summary presentation. - M. Mysl, 1989.

8. Frolov E D Torch of Prometheus. Essays on ancient social thought. - 2nd edition - L.. Leningrad State University, 1991.

9. Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient philosophy: Textbook. manual for philosophers fak. and departments of the university. - M.: graduate School, 1981

MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY: ORIGINS, FEATURES, CONTENTS

Philosophy during the Roman Empire. Ancient Roman philosophy On the basis of which Roman philosophy is formed

SENECA

EPICTETUS

MARK AURELIUS

DAM

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