They dreamed about flights to other planets, fantasized and tried to imagine how it would be back in the 19th and early 20th centuries. But it was only in the second half of the 20th century that rocket technology developers appeared who translated these fantasies into projects, technologies, and products. Studying the materials related to those developments, you are surprised how bold and at the same time thoughtful, systematic and promising were the technical solutions adopted by the developers of those legendary times.

In the early 1960s in the Soviet Union under the leadership of S.P. Korolev began the development of projects for manned spacecraft, intended for multi-year space expeditions. The launch of the ship to Mars was even scheduled for June 8, 1971 (the great opposition, when the planets approach at the smallest distance), the return - for July 10, 1974.

In the design department of OKB-1, under the leadership of Mikhail Klavdievich Tikhonravov, various options ship to fly to Mars. The project was called the Heavy Interplanetary Ship (TMK). Specialists of the 9th department of OKB-1, however, deciphered the abbreviation in a different way - Tikhonravov Mikhail Klavdievich. Research on TMK was carried out in parallel by two groups of designers under the leadership of Gleb Yuryevich Maksimov and, a little later, Konstantin Petrovich Feoktistov. The goal of working on TMK projects was to develop a ship that would provide manned flights from Earth satellite orbit to the planets of the Solar System with the possibility of landing and exploring these planets. Initially, it was supposed to explore Mars, and then Venus.

The first projects of our country

It is known that in the draft design of rocket and space systems based on the "N-1", which Chief Designer Sergei Pavlovich Korolev approved on May 16, 1962, among the tasks that were set for these systems, there are also the following: "a flight by a crew of two or three human Mars, Venus and return to Earth; the implementation of expeditions to the surface of Mars and Venus and the choice of a place for a research base; the creation of research bases on Mars and the implementation of transport links between the Earth and the planets.

It seems fantastic, but Sergei Pavlovich was sure that they could be realized during the lifetime of his generation. This is how work on Martian projects began at OKB-1 in the early 1960s.

Back in 1959, the Chief Designer ordered the team of the then famous Department No. 9, headed by Mikhail Klavdievich Tikhonravov, to make the first estimates for a manned expedition to Mars.

The preliminary design developed by the group provided for the creation of a giant "Martian manned complex" ("MPC") from separate blocks in near-Earth orbit. Its weight was estimated at 1600 tons. It was supposed to use LRE on liquid oxygen and kerosene. To put all this mass into orbit, it was supposed to carry out from 20 to 24 launches of super-heavy launch vehicles. The expedition was designed for 30 months, while it was planned to devote about a year to the direct study of the planet - from the satellite's orbit and on its surface. The ship returned to Earth was supposed to have a mass of 15 tons. Before carrying out the expedition, a test flight of a ship (of a somewhat smaller size) was to take place, which was to fly around Mars, having studied it from a certain distance. It soon became clear that the project could not be implemented in the near future. Too much was unclear and too high requirements for technology were laid down in it.

After the adoption on August 3, 1964, of the secret resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On the work on the exploration of the Moon and outer space", which ordered to carry out "landing of the expedition on the surface of the Moon with subsequent return and landing on Earth" Department No. 9 OKB-1, headed by Mikhail Klavdievich Tikhonravov, work on the lunar project was reoriented, which was a space "train" consisting of ships 7K (Soyuz-A), 9K (Soyuz-B) and 11K (Soyuz-V) .

Project of Gleb Yuryevich Maksimov

This portrait of Gleb Maksimov is exhibited at the Museum of Astronautics of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)

The project of G.Yu. Maksimov's group assumed the rapid implementation of the program by available means in order to be in time for the closest approach to Mars in 1971. To do this, it was supposed to create a relatively simple in design and small in weight spaceship with a crew of three. The project envisaged a flyby of Mars with exploration on a flyby trajectory and without landing on its surface or without entering a near-Martian orbit, followed by the return of the spacecraft to the Earth region. By correcting the flight trajectory, it was necessary to very accurately bring the ship to the Earth, where the descent vehicle was to separate from it, entering the atmosphere at a speed exceeding the second space one, and performing a controlled descent and parachute landing. Structurally, this TMK variant was a cylindrical cockpit with instrument-aggregate compartment, remote control for trajectory correction and solar panels on the outer side of the ship. Lacking appropriate initial data on the reliability of the huge launch vehicle H- 1 , the designers provided for the launch of the interplanetary spacecraft into near-Earth orbit in two versions: with astronauts on board or with the subsequent "replanting" of the crew on TMK. In the latter case, an unmanned interplanetary spacecraft with an upper stage was launched into orbit using H- 1 , and the crew was delivered to him in one of the ships being developed at that time in OKB-1. After the transplantation of the cosmonauts, TMK was launched with an upper stage from orbit in the direction of Mars.

Dimensions "TMK": full length - 12 meters, maximum diameter - 6 meters, gross weight - 75 tons. After a three-year journey, on July 10, 1974, the crew would return to Earth.

Later, when OKB-1 began the actual planning of the expedition, the developments of the Maksimov group formed the basis of the MAVR project, which provided for a flight to Mars with an intermediate flyby of Venus.

Heavy Interplanetary Ship (TMK) in the latest edition

Project by Konstantin Petrovich Feoktistov

Konstantin Petrovich Feoktistov

To Mars by Vladimir Chelomey

For the first time, OKB-52 turned to the Martian theme in the early 60s. On the personal initiative of Vladimir Nikolaevich Chelomey, a whole family of unmanned spaceplanes was developed that could be used to study Mars. Chelomey's spaceplanes were built according to modular principle. Usually they consisted of the following modules: an upper stage on a liquid-propellant rocket engine, a nuclear reactor unit, a bunch of marching ion engines, and the spaceplane itself with a return part.

The spaceplane itself was a conical-shaped apparatus, located in a heat-shielding container, with petal shields that ensured maneuvering in the atmosphere. Upon entering the atmosphere of Mars, the spaceplane was slowed down to an acceptable speed, after which the heat-shielding container was dropped, the wings were deployed, the turbojet engine was turned on, and the flight of the apparatus over the red planet began.

In total, within the framework of "Theme K", two variants of spaceplanes for flights to Mars and Venus were developed. The ballistic missile "UR-200K" with a carrying capacity of 2 tons was chosen as a means for launching the complex into near-Earth orbit.

At the end of the 60s, the outstanding successes of the UR-500K (Proton-K) rockets inspired the designers of OKB-52 (TsKBM) to an alternative project for a manned expedition to Mars. This option was based on the "lunar" rocket "UR-700"

According to the project, the launch to Mars would be in

already possible in 1974. The ship was launched into low Earth orbit by a modified UR-700M rocket. A crew of two astronauts in the MK-700 Martian spacecraft would spend two years in flight to Mars and then return to Earth in a capsule specially designed for the Transport Supply Ship (TKS).

Dimensions of the ship "MK-700": full length - 140 meters, maximum diameter - 12.5 meters, gross weight - 140 tons. As a main engine for an interplanetary ship, it was planned

to use the RD-0410 nuclear rocket engine, which was being developed at that time.

The designers of the Chelomey bureau have not yet thought about landing astronauts on Mars. The idea to equip the MK-700 with a landing module of the LK-700 type arose later, when OKB-52 began pre-draft design of the UR-900.

This giant super-heavy launch vehicle (full length - 90 meters, maximum diameter - 28 meters, launch weight - 8000 tons) on Glushko's RD-254 engines could put a mass of up to 240 tons into a near-Earth reference orbit.

However, Chelomey's proposal was not accepted, including for financial reasons.

Stages of evolution of the Martian expeditionary complex at RSC Energia

What now? Evgeny Anatolyevich Mikrin, General Designer of RSC Energia, probably most accurately said this:

“The Mars program is the guiding star of manned space exploration. However, for this you need to go through a certain path. It requires significant improvements to improve energy-mass efficiency, improve reliability and provide greater autonomy.

There is a need for a near-closed-loop life support system, radiation shielding for long flight, and a fail-safe, maintainable system that requires a minimum amount of spare parts, tools, etc.

Therefore, within the framework of the foundations of the state policy of the Russian Federation in the field of space activities, it is proposed to start testing these technologies at the international space station and during the implementation of the Lunar program, which includes: Luna-27", "Luna-28", the creation of a manned spacecraft for a flight to the Moon, the creation of a super-heavy launch vehicle, a manned flight into the circumlunar space with a landing on the surface of the Moon using a lunar take-off and landing complex.

As for the Martian expeditions, then, in my opinion, they will be real not in the 20s and not even in the 30s. More like in the 40s. It is quite obvious that the Mars program is too big for one, even a very rich country. Most likely it will be an international project.”

"Martian Project" by Wernher von Braun

(from the book by Anton Pervushin "Battle for the Stars")

In the Third Reich, you could do rocket science, but you couldn't dream of space flight.

Willie Lay tells the following story:

“Early on the morning of March 15, 1944, General Buhle called Dornberger from Berchtesgaden (Hitler's residence). Dornberger was ordered to report immediately to Field Marshal Keitel in Berchtesgaden. When he arrived there, Bule informed him that Dr. von Braun and the engineers Klaus Riedel and Helmut Gröttrup had been arrested by the Gestapo. The next day, Keitel explained to Dornberger that those arrested were likely to be executed, as they were accused of sabotaging the development of the A-4 rocket project. Their conversation was allegedly overheard that they were working on the A-4 rocket under duress, while interplanetary travel was their cherished goal.

Those arrested were released thanks to Dornberger's sworn statement that these people are needed to complete work on the A-4 missile project.

The same story, but in his own words, is also retold by Albert Speer. So it was. And in general, you can understand the Gestapo: while the whole people, tirelessly, are working in the name of a great victory, these, so to speak, intellectuals are going to flee to Mars.

Wernher von Braun heeded the warning and did not speak more on the subject of flights to other worlds. But as you know, you can shave off your beard, but what to do with thoughts? ..

Once in the United States and breathing in the air of freedom, von Braun began to perform with his truly space projects.

The first notes were made by him in the form of reports at the First Symposium on Problems of Space Flight, held on October 12, 1950 at the New York Planetarium. At the same time, von Braun claimed that he had been considering his project for a long time - since the middle of the war. As early as 1946, he was doing applicability calculations for the US Army. ballistic missile"A-12" for launching payloads (including a habitable capsule with an astronaut) to orbital altitude. Subsequently, these calculations resulted in the design of the space system under the code name "Von Braun" ("Von Braun"), which consisted of a two-stage launch vehicle and an orbital aircraft.

On March 22 and October 25, 1952, the materials of the symposium under the general title "Soon Man Will Conquer Space" were published in the popular American magazine Colliers and attracted the attention of the general public largely due to the excellent illustrations by Chesley Bonestell, which artists and filmmakers still rely on for illustrations of fantastic ideas put forward by specialists in astronautics and rocket technology. According to the Americans themselves, this publication was a major step in popularizing space flights on American soil.

So, what kind of project did Wernher von Braun propose?

Space exploration, according to von Braun, should have begun with the construction of a toroidal orbital station, which would be given rotation to create an artificial gravity inside. The station, where 80 people will live permanently, was planned to be used either as an atmospheric observatory or as a nuclear missile base for launching surprise strikes from space. The designer estimated its cost at 4 billion dollars.

The station is also needed in order to support the lunar expedition, which should take place no later than 1977. In order for the expedition to justify itself, at least a team of 50 astronauts (?!) should be sent to the Moon, who will stay on the surface of the Earth's natural satellite for at least six weeks. All this crowd of researchers will land on the surface of the Moon on three landing modules, deploy the base and begin to actively study the surroundings using three large tracked all-terrain vehicles.

It is clear that to ensure such a large-scale expedition, an appropriate "lunar ship" will be required. This ship should be assembled in orbit six months before the departure of the expedition. Every day two cargo ships reusable"Saturn Shuttle" (in appearance very similar to the good old rocket "A-4b", only greatly increased in size) must put at least 70 tons of cargo into orbit near the station, where the "lunar" will be assembled. In the end, you should get a monstrously huge ship weighing 4370 tons, 49 meters long, with a maximum hull diameter of 33.5 meters. powerful engines. At the very top of the ship there was a spherical module with a crew of 10 m in diameter. The interior of the module is divided into five decks: the bridge, the ship's systems control center, cabins, storage (hold) and a special equipment block (LSS and batteries).

Despite the scale of the lunar expedition project, Wernher von Braun estimated its cost very modestly: at 300 million dollars.

Two years later, in the April 30, 1954 issue of Colliers magazine, an extended space exploration project was published, including an expedition to Mars, information about which was rather scarce in previous issues. As it turned out, the difference between the "lunar project" and the "Martian project" is only in the size of the ship.

Such were the plans of the "rocket baron" Wernher von Braun during the American period of his life. These plans were not implemented. I must say that at the beginning he was frankly not trusted and he had to participate in the development of the American space industry - to launch the first American satellites, single astronauts. However, nevertheless, he managed to implement the project of the Saturn-5 superrocket, which brought him the palm in the Moon Race to his new homeland.

RF PROJECTS OF THE NEW TIME

Subsonic analogue of "Spiral" MIG105.11.

In modern times, the space industry set itself much more modest tasks. In 2000, RSC Energia began designing the Clipper multi-purpose space complex. This reusable spacecraft, a distant descendant of the Spiral project by G.I. Lozino-Lozinsky was supposed to be used to solve a wide variety of tasks: cargo delivery, evacuation of the space station crew, space tourism, flights to other planets.

There were certain hopes for the project. Unfortunately, due to lack of funding in 2006, the project was closed. However, the technologies developed under the Clipper project are expected to be used to design the Advanced Manned Transport System (PPTS), also known as the Rus project.

Winged version of the Clipper in orbital flight. Webmaster's drawing based on the Clipper 3D model©Vadim Lukashevich

It is the PPTS - called "Federation", as Russian experts believe, that will be destined to become a domestic space system of a new generation, capable of replacing the reliable, constantly modernized, but still outdated Soyuz and Progress.

As in the case of the Clipper, RSC Energia is developing the spacecraft. The basic modification of the complex will be the New Generation Manned Transport Vehicle (PTK NK), which is designed to deliver people and cargo to orbital stations in near-Earth orbit and to the Moon. For the Federation, a modular construction of the base ship was adopted in the form of functionally complete elements - the return vehicle and the engine compartment. The ship will be wingless, with a reusable truncated-conical return part and a disposable cylindrical engine compartment, and will widely use systems designed at RSC Energia for the Clipper (multi-purpose manned spacecraft). The maximum crew of the Federation will be 6 people (when flying to the Moon - up to 4 people).

General specifications:
The mass of cargo delivered into orbit is 500 kg, the mass of cargo returned to Earth is 500 kg or more, with a smaller crew. The length of the spacecraft is 6.1 m, the maximum hull diameter is 4.4 m, the mass during near-Earth orbital flights is 12 tons (during flights into lunar orbit - 16.5 tons), the mass of the return part is 4.23 tons (including soft landing - 7.77 tons), the volume of the sealed compartment - 18 m³. The duration of the autonomous flight of the ship is up to 30 days.

New structural materials with improved strength characteristics and carbon fiber will reduce the mass of the spacecraft structure by 20-30% and will extend its service life. Household compartments will simply dock, depending on the task that the Federation will face.

Model of PPTS at the MAKS-2009 exhibition

NEW US SPACESHIPS

In July 2011, US President Barack Obama declared that a mission to Mars is a new and, as far as one can assume, the main goal of American astronauts for the coming decades. One of the programs implemented by NASA as part of the exploration of the Moon and the flight to Mars was the large-scale space program Constellation.

It is based on the creation of a new Orion manned spacecraft, Ares-1 and Ares-5 launch vehicles, as well as the Altair lunar module. Despite the fact that in 2010 the US government decided to curtail the Constellation program, NASA was able to continue developing the Orion.

The first unmanned test flight of the ship was planned to be implemented in 2014. It was assumed that during the flight the apparatus would move 6,000 kilometers from the Earth. This is about fifteen times further than the ISS is. After the test flight, the ship should head for Earth. The new apparatus will be able to enter the atmosphere at a speed of 32,000 km/h. According to this indicator, "Orion" surpasses the legendary "Apollo" by one and a half thousand kilometers.

The first unmanned experimental flight of the Orion is intended to demonstrate its potential. The test of the ship should be an important step towards the implementation of its manned launch, which is scheduled for 2021.

According to NASA plans, Delta-4 and Atlas-5 will act as Orion launch vehicles. It was decided to abandon the development of Ares. In addition, for the exploration of deep space, the Americans are designing a new super-heavy launch vehicle SLS.

The Orion is a partially reusable spacecraft and is conceptually closer to the Soyuz than to the space shuttle. Partially reusable are most promising spacecraft. This concept assumes that after landing on the Earth's surface, the spacecraft's habitation capsule can be reused for launching into outer space.

This makes it possible to combine the functional practicality of reusable spacecraft with the cost-effectiveness of operating Soyuz or Apollo type vehicles. Such a decision is a transitional stage. Probably, in the distant future, all spacecraft will become reusable. So the American Space Shuttle and the Soviet Buran were, in a sense, ahead of their time.

Orion is a multi-purpose capsule partially reusable manned spacecraft of the United States, developed since the mid-2000s as part of the Constellation program©NASA

Currently, by order of NASA, in addition to the Orion project, several private companies are developing their own spacecraft projects designed to replace the devices used today.

Boeing is developing the partially reusable manned spacecraft CST-100 under the Commercial Manned Spacecraft Development Program (CCDev). The device is designed to make short trips to near-Earth orbit. Its main task will be to deliver the crew and cargo to the ISS.

The crew of the ship can be up to seven people. At the same time, during the design of the CST-100 Special attention was given to the comfort of the astronauts. The living space of the device is much more extensive than the ships of the previous generation. It will probably be launched using Atlas, Delta or Falcon launch vehicles.

At the same time, Atlas-5 is the most suitable option. The landing of the ship will be carried out using a parachute and air cushions. According to Boeing's plans, in 2015 the CST-100 is waiting for a series of test launches. The first two flights will be unmanned. Their main task is to launch the device into orbit and test security systems.

During the third flight, a manned docking with the ISS is planned. If the tests are successful, the CST-100 will very soon be able to replace the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, which exclusively carry out manned flights to the International Space Station.

CST-100 manned transport spacecraft©Boeing

Another private ship that will deliver cargo and crew to the ISS will be an apparatus developed by SpaceX, which is part of the Sierra Nevada Corporation. Partially reusable monoblock ship "Dragon" was developed under NASA's program "Commercial Orbital Transportation" (COTS).

It is planned to build three modifications of it: manned, cargo and autonomous. The crew of the manned spacecraft, as in the case of the CST-100, can be seven people. In the cargo modification, the ship will take on board four people and two and a half tons of cargo.

And in the future, they want to use the Dragon for flights to the Red Planet. Why will they develop a special version of the ship - "Red Dragon". According to the plans of the American space authorities, the unmanned flight of the apparatus to Mars will take place in 2018, and the first test manned flight of the US spacecraft is expected to be carried out in a few years.

One of the features of the "Dragon" is its reusability. After the flight, part of the power systems and fuel tanks will descend to Earth together with the spacecraft's habitation capsule and can be used again for space flights. This constructive ability distinguishes the new ship from most of the promising developments.

In the near future, "Dragon" and CST-100 will complement each other and act as a "safety net". In the event that one type of ship for some reason cannot perform the tasks assigned to it, the other will take over part of its work.

Dragon SpaceX is SpaceX's private transport spacecraft (SC) developed by order of NASA under the Commercial Orbital Transportation (COTS) program, designed to deliver payloads and, in the future, people to the ISS©SpaceX

The Dragon was launched into orbit for the first time in 2010. The unmanned test flight was completed successfully, and a few years later, namely on May 25, 2012, the device docked to the ISS. By that time, the ship did not have an automatic docking system, and for its implementation it was necessary to use the space station manipulator.

This flight was considered as the first ever docking of a private spacecraft to the International Space Station. Let's make a reservation right away: the Dragon and a number of other spacecraft developed by private companies can hardly be called private in the full sense of the word. For example, NASA allocated $1.5 billion for the development of the Dragon.

Other private projects also receive financial support from NASA. Therefore, we are talking not so much about the commercialization of space, but about a new strategy for the development of the space industry, based on cooperation between the state and private capital.

Once secret space technologies, previously available only to the state, are now the property of a number of private companies involved in the field of astronautics. This circumstance is in itself a powerful incentive for the growth of technological capabilities of private companies. In addition, this approach made it possible to arrange in the private sphere a large number of high-class specialists in the space industry, who were previously dismissed by the state in connection with the closure of the Space Shuttle program.

Of great interest is the project of the private company SpaceDev, called "Dream Chaser". Twelve partners of the company, three American universities and seven NASA centers also took part in its development.

The concept of the reusable manned spacecraft Dream Chaser, developed by the American company SpaceDev, a division of the Sierra Nevada Corporation©SpaceDev

This ship is very different from all other promising space developments. The reusable "Dream Chaser" looks like a miniature "Space Shuttle" and is able to land like an ordinary plane. The main tasks of the ship are similar to those of the Dragon and CST-100. The device will serve to deliver cargo and crew (up to the same seven people) to low Earth orbit, where it will be launched using the Atlas-5 launch vehicle.

The Dream Chaser project is being created on the basis of an American development of the 1990s - the HL-20 orbital aircraft. The project of the latter has become a certain analogue of the Soviet project to create the Spiral orbital system.

Recently, more and more talk has been going around this unique project of the USSR, which can now bring a commotion to modern military doctrines.

"Spiral" is a space system consisting of an orbital fighter aircraft and a hypersonic booster aircraft that puts the former into orbit. The surface temperature of the forward fuselage different stages descent from orbit could reach 1600 ° C. It was assumed that the orbital aircraft, being very quickly launched into orbit, would be able to perform various tasks, including selectively shooting down enemy military satellites, or even taking some of them with them.

In January 2014, as part of the Commercial Crew Development program, it was announced that the launch for the first unmanned test orbital flight was scheduled for November 1, 2016, as a result of further loss in funding, the launch did not take place.

In September 2014, the project was not selected to receive NASA funding in the next phase of the Commercial Crew Development program from CCiCAP to CCtCAP, although the proposed price of $2.55 billion was less than competitor Boeing's $3.01 billion. The CST-100 and Dragon V2 capsule ships were selected.

After losing further funding from NASA's manned Commercial Crew Development program, Sierra Nevada Corporation said it plans to participate in the CRS2 ISS cargo delivery program, which covers the period from 2018 to 2024.

In October 2015, a new date was announced for the next test in a series of atmospheric tests for a refurbished vehicle that suffered damage from the 2013 accident. The start of the tests was planned for the first quarter of 2016. It was assumed from 3 to 6 test flights, with the drop of the ship from various heights using a helicopter and subsequent landing. To avoid problems with landing gear, to pneumatic drive added mechanical. The assembly of the orbital version of the device has also begun.

On January 14, 2016, NASA selected the Sierra Nevada Corporation, with their cargo version of the Dream Chaser spacecraft, as one of three winners in the International Space Station's Commercial Resupply Services 2 (CRS2) Phase II competition. The companies are guaranteed at least 6 cargo missions to the ISS between 2019 and 2024.

On June 28, 2016, the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) and Sierra Nevada Corporation signed a Memorandum of Understanding to work together to provide accessible opportunities for United Nations Member States to conduct experiments in space.

On September 27, 2016, the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, together with the Sierra Nevada Corporation at the International Astronautical Congress, announced the details of the first ever dedicated United Nations space mission to take place in 2021 and will allow United Nations Member States to participate in 14 daytime flight of the Dream Chaser in low Earth orbit (LEO) for experiments and microgravity studies.

In January 2017, the flight prototype was delivered to NASA's Armstrong Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base for testing.

On November 11, 2017, a second gliding and landing test was made. The flight prototype was dropped from a helicopter from a height of 3.8 km to test gliding and landing on the runway at Edwards AFB. Landing successful

All three devices have a similar appearance and intended functionality. This raises a perfectly legitimate question. Was it worth it for the Soviet Union to turn off the half-finished Spiral aerospace system?

Lunar programs

Russia

The resumption of lunar exploration, interrupted in 1976, is scheduled for 2019 under the Russian lunar program. In the draft program for the study of the solar system until 2025, prepared by scientists of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the study of the moon is called a top priority. All these spacecraft launches are planned to be carried out from the Vostochny cosmodrome. (Dates are as of August 2016). According to the press service of Roscosmos, all work on the Luna-Grunt project is being implemented in accordance with the schedule:

PA") - main and backup landing probes

At the second stage - after 2020 - new lunar rovers - Lunokhod-3 and Lunokhod-4 - will operate on the surface of the Moon. They will differ from the Soviet lunar rovers in their significantly smaller size and, at the same time, a greater resource. It is planned that the new lunar rovers will be able to operate in the polar regions of the Moon for up to five years and move away from the landing site at a distance of up to 30 kilometers. It is planned that in 2023 a descent vehicle with a return rocket will go to the Moon, which will land near Lunokhod-3 and Lunokhod-4. Then six or seven capsules with lunar material will be reloaded from the lunar rovers into a return rocket that will return them to Earth.
The lunar rovers and the landing station remaining on the surface of the Moon will form the first elements of the space infrastructure of the lunar test site with the prospect of deploying a future Russian lunar base in this area. Manned research stations on the Moon can be created in 2030-2040.
China

China's Chang'e lunar sounding program includes three phases: orbiting the Earth's satellite (Chang'e-1 and Chang'e-2), landing on the Moon (Chang'e-3 and Chang'e-4), and return from the Moon to Earth ("Chang'e-5" and "Chang'e-6").
The first lunar satellite, Chang'e-1, was launched in 2007 and operated until 2009. The data he collected allowed Chinese scientists to create, in particular, the first thermal map of the Moon. The Chang'e-2 lunar sounding satellite was launched on October 1, 2010. One of the main tasks of the satellite was to collect the necessary information for the successful landing of Chang'e-3 and Chang'e-4 on the lunar surface. After completing the transmission of high-resolution images of the lunar surface, on December 13, 2012, Chang'e-2 flew past the asteroid Tautatis and took pictures of it.
According to a representative of the Center for Space Science and Applied Research of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, China intends to carry out the first landing of a national spacecraft on the Moon in 2013. The launch of the Chang'e-5 satellite, which will begin the third stage of the Chinese lunar program and which will deliver samples of lunar soil to Chinese scientists, is expected in 2017, and by 2030 it is planned to send the first Chinese astronauts (taikunauts) to the Earth's satellite.

USA

The new US space strategy was announced by President George W. Bush in 2004. In accordance with the Constellation program (“Constellation”), until 2020, the United States had to deliver astronauts to the moon, and then send a mission to Mars.
A commission appointed by President Obama to review space strategy concluded that Constellation is very expensive ($3 billion a year in addition to the total program budget, which has grown from $27 billion to $44 billion), uses outdated technology, and will not be able to ensure the delivery of people to the moon. even by 2028.
In 2010, Obama announced the closure of the program. The main task future American manned spacecraft "Orion", which were part of the lunar program "Constellation", will be the exploration of space beyond low Earth orbit. In particular, the United States is planning a manned asteroid exploration mission (2025) and a flight to Mars in the 2030s.

European Space Agency (ESA)

The first European vehicle to orbit the Moon was the SMART-1 experimental vehicle launched by ESA in 2003, which completed its mission in 2006. For three years of work, the device transmitted to Earth a lot of information about the lunar surface, and also carried out high-resolution cartography of the Moon.
The ESA was working on a solar system exploration program called Aurora, which planned to send Europeans to the Moon and Mars. The financial crisis hit the ESA plans. A number of EU member countries of the Agency have made significant cuts in their funding, in particular, the Lunar Lander program - a space flight project with a landing on the surface of the Moon. It was planned that in 2019 or a little later, an automatic ESA station would land at the south pole of the moon. The cost of the Lunar Lander project was estimated at half a billion euros. After the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain and Italy announced a reduction in funding for this project in 2012, the Lunar Lander had to be abandoned.
ESA intends to continue exploration of the Moon together with Russia, keeping in mind that the long-term task of cooperation will be a mission to bring soil samples to Earth from the polar regions of the satellite. This goal can be achieved within the framework of the mission of the Russian lander Luna-Resource and the LPSR (Lunar Polar Sample Return) mission for the delivery of soil samples.

India

India's first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, was launched from Satish Dhawan in October 2008. The spacecraft managed to work in the orbit of the Moon for 312 days, having completed 3.4 thousand orbits around it. He transmitted to Earth thousands of photographs of the surface and data on chemical composition Moon. On August 29, 2009, the Chandrayan transmitted the last data packet to Earth, after which communication with it was interrupted.
The continuation of the Indian lunar program is the Chandrayaan-2 project, in the preparation of which the Russian Space Agency takes part. The Chandrayaan-2 station will go to the Earth's satellite in 2014.
In the distant future (after 2025-2030), manned flights to the Moon are planned in cooperation with other countries or even independently.

Japan

The beginning of orbital research of the Moon by Japan was initiated by the launch in 2007 of the lunar probe "Kaguya" (Kaguya), which studied the gravitational anomalies of the satellite, made an accurate topographic map, explored traces of volcanic activity, photographed subpolar craters. The probe completed its mission in 2009.
The Japanese lunar exploration program involves the construction of a research base and the launch of a robot.
The exploration strategy for the lunar surface is divided into two phases. Until 2015, a wheeled robot will be sent to the moon. It will transmit video images and decrypt internal structure Moon with the help of seismographic equipment.
Over the next five years, a base research station will be built at the south pole of the moon, with the help of which it is supposed to conduct reconnaissance and study the surface within a radius of 100 kilometers. The station will be able to independently generate electricity, as well as take soil samples, especially valuable specimens of which will be sent to Earth.
According to Japanese media, the budget for the entire lunar exploration strategy through 2020 will be 200 billion yen ($2.2 billion).

Israel

At the end of 2011, the development of the first lunar rover in the history of the country was launched in Israel. The project must be financed by at least 90% from non-state sources. As reported, the weight of the first Israeli lunar rover will be 90 kilograms, and the dimensions will be 80 by 80 centimeters.
The creators of the first Israeli lunar rover are considering the possibility of using a Russian launch vehicle to launch their device into space in 2015.

The first half of the 2000s was a very difficult time for Russian cosmonautics - funding problems led to the flooding of the Mir station in 2001, which required about $ 200 million annually to service it. Budget problems partially explain the unsuccessful launch of the Phobos-Grunt spacecraft ”, the construction of which began in 2004.

In 2006, Roscosmos adopted a space program until 2015, which clearly lacked ambition - the document only assumed the maintenance of the existing infrastructure in working condition. In the same period, the construction of the Vostochny cosmodrome began and the first flight of the Soyuz-2.1v rocket took place.

In the year of the end of the space program, Russia began to lose its position in the international market of space launches and a year later lost the championship to the United States. In 2018, Russia had 16 orbital launches, of which one ended in failure. China became the leader of the sphere, launching 36 spacecraft into orbit, followed by the United States with 30 successful orbital launches.

The decrease in the number of launches is partly due to the increase in the service life of satellites, but the main reason is the high cost of launches on Russian rockets compared to competitors' offerings.

Manned programs

At the moment, Russia has only two active manned programs - the ISS orbital station and spacecraft of the Soyuz MS family. The future of both programs looks uncertain.

The launch vehicles of the Soyuz family have a serious competitor - the Falcon 9 from SpaceX, on which satellite launches are half the price of Russian rockets. For example, launching a kilogram of cargo into orbit on an Elon Musk ship costs the customer $1,500, while on the Soyuz it costs almost $3,000.

Soyuz station. Photo: NASA / Shutterstock

Another problem is the accident of the Soyuz-FG launch vehicle, which occurred on October 11, 2018, while trying to put the Soyuz MS-10 manned spacecraft into orbit. The emergency rescue system made it possible to avoid the death of the cosmonauts, however, the cause of the accident turned out to be quite painful for Russia - during the separation of the first stage, one of the sensors responsible for the separation of the stages worked out of order. The reason for the failure could only be a poor-quality assembly of the launch vehicle - the sensor was damaged during installation.

The reputation of the Soyuz also suffered due to a hole in the skin of the ship, the cause of which could not be finally established. The commission that investigated the incident was unable to establish whether the hole was drilled on Earth or in space.

The fate of the ISS, the largest space project in which Russia takes part, is also unclear. The operation of the station should be completed in 2024, and the Russian side has repeatedly offered partners to extend it until 2030. However, the United States, on whose funding the station is critically dependent, refused this proposal.

Now the United States annually invests more than $2.5 billion in the ISS, while Russia - only $1.5 billion, and the European, Japanese and Canadian space agencies - less than $1 billion combined. The withdrawal of the US from the project will make its continuation impossible - it is unlikely that the participating countries will be ready to increase its funding by an order of magnitude.

The likelihood that NASA will lose interest in the ISS is also increased by the project to build the near-lunar station Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway, which will cost the US $ 2.7 billion in 2019 alone. Russia will also take part in it, but as a contractor - and, perhaps place his modules on it.

Russia also lacks independent access to space - the launch complex for launching Soyuz rockets at the Vostochny cosmodrome is still missing. In addition, launches of satellites into orbits with low inclinations (equatorial and close to them) require too much fuel when launched from northern spaceports. Therefore, economically profitable spaceports used by Russia are located on the territory of three other states - Kazakhstan (Baikonur), France (Kourou) and the United States (Sea Launch).

Unmanned programs

Russia does not have a single device outside the Earth's orbit - and this says a lot about the country's space program. Research missions in deep and near space are carried out by the United States, the European Union, Japan, China and India - Russia is far from being a leader in this direction.

It is unlikely that it will be possible to close the gap in the near future - the budget of the Federal Space Program, adopted for 2016-2025, has been greatly reduced in recent years. For ten years it is 1.406 trillion rubles - instead of 2.5 trillion originally planned. Of these, the section "Fundamental Space Research" (FCR) is only 143.2 billion rubles - that is, 14 billion rubles annually. It includes support for all existing research missions, as well as the development of new ones, the launch of which is scheduled for the coming decades.

A serious loss for the industry was the closure of the program for the study of the Sun, which could have made a scientific revolution in astrophysics - the Interheliozond project. The device was intended to study the solar corona and the polar regions of the star, which are not visible from the Earth. In February, the mission was canceled due to lack of funding and technical difficulties encountered by the engineers. All work on the project has been stopped.

Russia failed to launch two missions to Mars - Mars-96 and Phobos-Grunt - as well as the Foton-M1 satellite.

On April 2, 2019, Roskosmos announced the termination of the mission of the only orbital telescope in Russia - Spektr-R. Having worked for 7.5 years instead of three planned, on January 10 the telescope stopped communicating with the Earth. The engineers tried to restart the machine with four different ways, however, none of the attempts were successful.

Scheduled launches

A big success for the Russian space industry will be the launch of the Federation - if it ever takes place. The development of a spacecraft capable of flying to the Moon and being part of a space station for up to a year has been underway since 2005. However, the launch date of the device was repeatedly postponed - it is expected that the first flight of the heavy version of the Federation to the Earth satellite will take place after 2025.

In 2020, Roscosmos plans to take the next step in terms of creating rocket engines - then the state corporation plans to conduct the first tests of the RD-0162 engine, which should replace the RD-180. The new engine will run on methane, and liquefied oxygen will be used as an oxidizer. The engine will be able to provide thrust up to 200 tons. On April 1, 2019, work on it stopped - the head of Roscosmos, Dmitry Rogozin, said that the funds necessary for the implementation of the project would be used to pay the debts of the Khrunichev Center.

In the interval up to 2026, Roscosmos intends to launch several research missions. Among them are the Spektr-FG and Spektr-M spectrometers, which are to replace the out-of-service Russian orbital telescope Spektr-R. In 2023, Russia, together with the European Space Agency (ESA), plans to launch the Luna-26 and Luna-28 lunar rovers to explore the Earth satellite.

For 2025, the agency has planned the Phobos-Grunt 2 mission. As part of the project, an autonomous space station is supposed to go to the moon of Mars, Phobos, and deliver soil samples to Earth. In 2020, Roscosmos and ESA will launch the Mars 2020 program, which will search for evidence of the presence or absence of life on the Red Planet. Russia also intends to send research vehicles to Mercury, Jupiter and Venus. If there is enough money for these programs.

space tourism

Sending tourists into space is not a new direction for Roscosmos. From 2001 to 2009, the state corporation sent seven tourists to the ISS, but then stopped providing this service due to unprofitability. However, competition with SpaceX forced the corporation to return to space tourism - and the first commercial flight will take place as early as 2020.

Tourists will be delivered to the ISS by the Soyuz MS-10 spacecraft, and the American company Space Adventures will look for customers. Similar services will be provided by the Russian private company KosmoKurs from 2025. It will take 15 minutes to fly the spacecraft she has built into near-Earth orbit and cost $250,000 per passenger.

The coming year promises to be not as rich in events in astronautics as 2018. However, it is 2019 that will be especially important for Russia and the United States, since the former will lose its monopoly on manned launches to the ISS, and the latter will begin to independently send their own astronauts into low Earth orbit. Also of particular interest is the launch of the Beresheet mission, the success of which will make it especially clear that any developed state is capable of exploring deep space. talks about the main events in astronautics that are scheduled for 2019.

Related materials

End of Russian monopoly

The first demonstration unmanned flight of the Dragon 2 manned spacecraft is scheduled for the second half of January. The spacecraft will be launched into orbit by a heavy Falcon 9 rocket, and the launch will be carried out from the site of the John F. Kennedy Space Center (northwest of Cape Canaveral). During the flight, it is planned to obtain data on the characteristics of the Falcon 9 rocket, the Dragon 2 spacecraft, the functioning of ground support systems, orbital and docking systems, and also test the landing of the vehicle. The information collected will be used to certify SpaceX manned systems.

The Dragon 2 manned flight to the ISS is scheduled for June. The unmanned mission of the Starliner spacecraft is due in March, with the crew in August.

An important circumstance is that the United States will have two active manned spacecraft, the capacity and carrying capacity of which significantly exceed the capabilities of the only Russian Soyuz MS, which in the end is largely a Soviet development half a century ago.

Image: Nathan Koga/SpaceFlight Insider

NASA was tasked with sending humans to the surface of the Moon and Mars. This means that next year we can expect test launches of the Space Launch System rocket.

"Manned flight to Mars? Yes, it’s not soon, ”I’m sure almost any inhabitant of our planet will answer this way. However, the future is not as far away as it seems. NASA said this week that the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the Orion crewed space capsule are already in the joint assembly phase. And this means that as early as next year we can expect test launches of a rocket with a capsule so far without a crew. A manned flight to the Moon is planned by NASA in 2023.

Space Launch System rocket for deep space exploration

Human space exploration

Several decades have passed since the end of manned missions for the purpose of space exploration. Yes, astronauts are constantly working on the ISS, and the US is now even ready to independently launch astronauts to the station using the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon Crew capsule. But still we want something more - we want manned flights to the Moon and Mars.

Space Launch System SLS

For these purposes, NASA is developing and creating the SLS space launch system, which includes a two-stage rocket more than 100 meters long and 8.4 meters in diameter and the Orion spacecraft. It was expected that the test flight of the rocket would take place as early as 2017, but due to funding problems, the first unmanned launch was pushed back to 2020, and sending astronauts to the Moon is now scheduled for 2023.

Safety of manned missions

This whole process seems too long for us - again delays, again shifts in plans. But do not forget that, unlike the launch of the InSight spacecraft to Mars, which was also carefully prepared for, the price of an error in manned missions is too high. Therefore, the requirements for the safety of the spacecraft that will deliver the crew are much higher.

So, for example, the Orion capsule will have to return to Earth safe and sound, even if the rocket turns out to be faulty. In June of this year, such an emergency landing will be tested. The launch vehicle will lift the Orion apparatus to a height of several thousand meters, from where it will have to descend to Earth on its own.

It seems almost every week there are reports that scientists are planning to send exciting new space missions to explore the secrets of the universe, from bizarre trips to Mars to serious scientific expeditions. No wonder they are so hard to follow. Therefore, we have compiled a list of interesting space missions for the next 20 years. Please note that all dates are subject to change.

2017

March - Planetary Society "Light Sail-2" organizes the second demonstration of solar sail technology. It is expected to launch into orbit.
September 15 - NASA's Cassini mission around Saturn comes to an end.
Autumn - Asgardia, a private company that wants to create the first "space nation", will launch its first unmanned satellite.
November - SpaceX will perform an unmanned test of the Crew Dragon vehicle in orbit. The manned flight is scheduled for May 2018.
December - The long-awaited Russian Nauka module, also called the Multipurpose Laboratory Module, will be launched to the International Space Station.
December - Blue Origin plans to begin manned space launches.
December - NASA's new telescope, the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), should be operational by the end of the year.
December 19 - The new European telescope Characterizing Exoplanets Satellite (CHEOPS) will be ready for launch.
XCOR's Lynx spaceplanes will be prepared for the start of test flights. The aircraft will carry two people for short flights into space.
A private company in Arizona, World View Enterprises, wants to start sending paying customers on trips in high-altitude balloons. They can spend two hours at 30,500 meters for $75,000.
China will try to get samples from the moon using the Chang'e-5 mission. It will be the first lunar sample delivered to Earth since 1976.
Two competing companies in the Google Lunar XPRIZE — Moon Express and SpaceIL — are expected to launch to the moon and attempt to land unmanned probes, the first in the history of private lunar landings.
SpaceX's new heavy-lift rocket, the Falcon Heavy, will be launched for the first time.

2018

January is the estimated launch date for Inspiration Mars, a private mission that will send two people into orbit around Mars. However, it is unlikely that the mission will ever be sent.
February - NASA's Juno mission, which is currently studying Jupiter, will be completed. However, the mission could be extended to 2019.
April - The European Space Agency (ESA) plans to launch BepiColombo, its first mission to Mercury.
May 5 - NASA plans to launch the InSight lander to Mars. Landing is expected to take place on 26 November. The unmanned probe will study inner part Red planet.
May - SpaceX plans to launch its first unmanned flight to Mars, which will also be the first private mission to the Red Planet.
June is the first test of the unmanned Boeing Starliner. The manned flight will take place in August 2018.
On July 31, NASA's Solar Probe Plus mission will be launched. This is the first mission to reach the Sun's upper atmosphere.
July - The Japanese spacecraft Hayabusa-2 arrives at its target, the asteroid Ryugu. It was launched on December 3, 2014 and is due to return to Earth with samples in December 2020.
August - NASA's OSIRIS-REX spacecraft will land on the asteroid Bennu. It will return to Earth in September 2023 with a sample ranging in size from 60 g to 2 kg.
October - NASA's huge new Space Launch System (SLS) rocket is launched for the first time. It will send the Orion spacecraft on a three-week mission around the Moon, although there are speculations that both the SLS and Orion could be scrapped.
October - The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the high-profile successor to the Hubble Space Telescope that has endured numerous cost overruns and delays, will finally launch.
October - ESA plans to launch its Solar Orbiter (SOLO) mission, which will study the Sun's heliosphere, its poles, and the solar wind.
December - India launches its next mission to the moon. Chandrayaan 2 will include an orbiter, lander and lunar rover.
Japan will launch a new mission called Moon SELENE-2. This is the successor to the 2007 SELENE mission. Like the mission in India, it will consist of an orbiter, lander and rover.
China will try to be the first country to land a probe on the far side of the moon with the Chang'e-4 lunar lander.

2019

January 1 - New Horizons will fly by an object in the outer solar system. This is an object in the Kuiper belt called 2014 MU69.
October - The Sierra Nevada Corporation plans to launch an unmanned space plane using an Atlas V rocket.
The end of 2019 is expected to launch a Japanese unmanned vehicle Smart Lander to explore the moon. He will be able to perform a precision landing by analyzing the surface as he approaches it.
In 2019, perhaps Virgin Galactic will finally start sending paying customers into space.
Deep Space Industries may launch its first unmanned spacecraft to an asteroid called Geologist 1.

2020

July - NASA's next rover will be launched to the Red Planet. He will have to look for signs past life on Mars. This and other missions will arrive on Mars in early 2021.
July - The ESA ExoMars rover will begin its journey to Mars in search of signs of past or present life.
July - United United Arab Emirates plan to launch their first mission to Mars in an orbiter called Hope.
July - India launches its second mission to Mars in an orbiter called Mangalyaan-2. It may also include a lander and a rover.
July - SpaceX may begin its next unmanned flight to Mars.
July/August - China plans to launch an orbiter, lander and rover to Mars. This will be his first mission to the Red Planet.
October - A joint project between NASA and the European Space Agency Asteroid Impact Mission will be launched. The purpose of the mission is to change the trajectory of the asteroid due to a collision with the spacecraft. The mission is currently in jeopardy.
China's second mission to the moon, Chang'e-6, will be launched, but its goals have not yet been determined.
The Square Kilometer Array, the world's largest radio telescope with a collecting area of one square kilometer, will be turned on for the first time.
Bigelow Aerospace hopes to start building the first space hotel with the B330 module.
The European Space Agency's Euclid mission will be launched. It will have to study the acceleration of the universe by measuring the redshift of distant galaxies, which will give us a deeper understanding of dark energy and dark matter.

2021

October - NASA launches a spacecraft called Lucy to study Jupiter's asteroids. The mission will conduct the study from August 2027 to March 2033.
NASA's Orion spacecraft will be launched into and out of lunar orbit for the first time. He will have a crew. 2021 is the earliest date for this mission as it could be sent two years later.
India plans to launch its first manned flight.

2022

ESA plans to launch the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer, a spacecraft to explore Jupiter's moons Ganymede, Callisto and Europa. It is planned that the device will enter the orbit of Jupiter in 2030, and into the orbit of Ganymede - in 2033.
China will launch the first part of a new large space station. This first module will be called Tiangong-3.
The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), an extremely large telescope to be built in Hawaii or the Canary Islands, is scheduled to go into service.
At some point in the mid-2020s, possibly 2022, NASA will launch its Europa Multiple-Flyby Mission. This spacecraft will study Jupiter's moon Europa, more precisely, its subsurface ocean and the possibility of its habitability. It may also include a descent vehicle.
Japan may launch a mission to retrieve a sample from Mars' moon Phobos.

2023

October - NASA plans to launch the Psyche mission to study the metal-rich asteroid of the same name in 2030.

2024

SpaceX plans to launch the first manned mission to Mars. It is part of the Interplanetary Transportation System project.
ESA may launch a mission, called Phootprint, to the Martian moon Phobos to collect samples.
The European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT), the world's largest optical telescope, will be commissioned.
It is planned to close the International Space Station and remove it from orbit. This date could be moved to 2028 or even later.
The European Space Agency's Planetary Transits and Oscillations of Stars satellite is expected to be launched. It will look for planetary systems beyond our own, with an emphasis on terrestrial planets around sun-like stars.

2025

At some point in the mid-2020s, NASA may launch a mission to bring back to Earth a sample of material from the surface of Mars.
NASA plans to launch its Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) in the mid-2020s. It will study dark energy and look for planetary systems like ours.

2026

Proposed year for NASA's Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM) launch. The purpose of the mission is to send the crew in an Orion capsule to a captured asteroid in lunar orbit. It can be combined with the previous Orion mission.
Proposed launch date for the first crewed Mars One mission. However, since the announcement of this program in 2012, the chances of this happening have largely diminished.

2028

The European Space Agency plans to launch the Athena mission, a space telescope that will image hot gas in the universe and also study supermassive black holes.

Early 2030s

NASA could launch a human into Mars orbit, possibly landing on the Martian moon Phobos and using rovers on the Martian surface. NASA aims for manned flights to the surface of Mars in the late 2030s.
Around the same time, China and Russia have tentative plans to land people on the moon.

2031

It is planned to launch the Russian spacecraft "Mercury-P", which will have to perform the first ever landing on Mercury.
Russia wants to perform its first manned moon landing.