Phone interaction. Experience shows that when bodies (or systems of bodies) approach each other, the nature of their behavior changes. Since these changes are mutual, the bodies are said to interact with each other . When the bodies are separated over very large distances (to infinity), all currently known interactions disappear.
Gallileo was the first to give the correct answer to the question of what kind of movement is characteristic of free
(i.e. non-interacting bodies). Contrary to the then existing opinion that free bodies “tend” to a state of rest (), he argued that in the absence of interaction, the bodies are in a state of uniform motion ( 
), which includes rest as a special case.
Inertial reference systems. Within the framework of the formal mathematical approach implemented in kinematics, Galileo's statement looks meaningless, since a motion that is uniform in one frame of reference can turn out to be accelerated in another, which is "no worse" than the original one. The presence of interaction allows us to single out a special class of reference systems in which free bodies move without acceleration (in these systems, most of the laws of nature have the simplest form). Such systems are called inertial.
All inertial systems are equivalent to each other, in any of them the laws of mechanics manifest themselves in the same way. This property was also noted by Galileo in his principle of relativity: n It is impossible to establish whether it is at rest or uniformly moving in a closed (ie, not communicating with the outside world) frame of reference, and no mechanical experience can determine whether it is at rest or moving uniformly. Any frame of reference that moves uniformly relative to inertial is also inertial.
There is a fundamental difference between inertial and non-inertial frames of reference: an observer located in a closed system is able to establish the fact of movement with the acceleration of the latter, “without looking out” (for example, when an airplane accelerates, passengers feel that they are “pressed” into their seats). Later it will be shown that in non-inertial systems the geometry of space ceases to be Euclidean.
Newton's laws as the basis of classical mechanics. The three laws of motion formulated by I. Newton make it possible in principle to solve the main task of mechanics , i.e. according to the known initial position and speed of the body, determine its position and speed at an arbitrary moment in time.
Newton's first law postulates the existence of inertial frames of reference.
Newton's second law States that in inertial systems, the acceleration of the body is proportional to the appliedstrength , a physical quantity that is a quantitative measure of the interaction. The magnitude of the force that characterizes the interaction of bodies can be determined, for example, by the deformation of an elastic body, additionally introduced into the system so that the interaction with it completely compensates for the original one. The coefficient of proportionality between force and acceleration is called body weight :
(1) F= m a
Under the action of the same forces, bodies with a larger mass acquire smaller accelerations. Massive bodies during interaction change their speeds to a lesser extent, “trying to preserve the natural motion by inertia”. It is sometimes said that mass is measure of inertia of bodies (Fig. 4_1).
The classical properties of mass include 1) its positivity (bodies acquire accelerations in the direction of the applied forces), 2) additivity (the mass of a body is equal to the sum of the masses of its parts), 3) independence of the mass from the nature of motion (for example, from speed).
third law states that the interactions of both objects experience the actions of forces, and these forces are equal in magnitude and oppositely directed.
Types of fundamental interactions. Attempts to classify interactions led to the idea of isolating the minimum set fundamental interactions , which can be used to explain all the observed phenomena. With the development of natural science, this set has changed. In the course of experimental studies, new natural phenomena were periodically discovered that did not fit into the accepted fundamental set, which led to its expansion (for example, the discovery of the structure of the nucleus required the introduction of nuclear forces). Theoretical understanding, on the whole, striving for a single, most economical description of the observed diversity, repeatedly led to “grand unifications” of outwardly completely dissimilar natural phenomena (Newton realized that the fall of an apple and the movement of planets around the Sun are the results of the manifestation of gravitational interactions, Einstein established the unified nature of electrical and magnetic interactions, Butlerov refuted the assertions about the different nature of organic and inorganic substances).
A set of four types of fundamental interactions is currently accepted:gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak nuclear. All the others known to date can be reduced to a superposition of the listed ones.
Gravitational interactions are due to the presence of mass in bodies and are the weakest of the fundamental set. They dominate at distances of cosmic scales (in the mega-world).
Electromagnetic interactions due to a specific property of a number of elementary particles, called electric charge. They play a dominant role in the macro and micro worlds up to distances exceeding the characteristic dimensions of atomic nuclei.
Nuclear interactions play a dominant role in nuclear processes and appear only at distances comparable to the size of the nucleus, where the classical description is obviously inapplicable.
At present, it has become very popular to talk about biofield , with the help of which a number of not very reliable experimentally established natural phenomena associated with biological objects is “explained”. Serious attitude to the concept of a biofield depends on what specific meaning. Embedded in this term. If the concept of a biofield is used to describe interactions involving biological objects that are reduced to four fundamental ones, such an approach does not raise fundamental objections, although the introduction of a new concept to describe “old” phenomena contradicts the generally accepted tendency in natural science to minimize the theoretical description. If, however, a biofield is understood as a new type of fundamental interactions that manifests itself at the macroscopic level (the possibility of the existence of which is obviously pointless to deny a priori), then such far-reaching conclusions require very serious theoretical and experimental justifications made in the language and methods of modern natural science, which until have not been presented to date.
Newton's laws and the main task of mechanics. To solve the main problem of mechanics (determining the position of the body at an arbitrary moment of time from the known initial position and speed), it is enough to find the acceleration of the body as a function of time a(t). This problem is solved by Newton's laws (1) under the condition of known forces. In the general case, the forces can depend on the time, position and speed of the body:
(2) F=F(r,v, t) ,
those. To find the acceleration of a body, it is necessary to know its position and velocity. The described situation in mathematics is called second order differential equation :
(3)
,
(4)
The math shows that problem (3-4) in the presence of two initial conditions (position and velocity at the initial moment of time) always has a solution and, moreover, the only one. That. the basic problem of mechanics always has a solution in principle, but it is often very difficult to find it.
Determinism of Laplace. The German mathematician Laplace applied a similar theorem on the existence and uniqueness of a solution to a problem of type (3-4) for a system of a finite number of equations to describe the motion of all particles of the real world interacting with each other and came to the conclusion that it is fundamentally possible to calculate the position of all bodies at any time . Obviously, this meant the possibility of an unambiguous predicted future (at least in principle) and complete determinism (predestination) of our world. The statement made, which is more philosophical than natural scientific in nature, was called determinism of Laplace . If desired, one could draw from it very far-reaching philosophical and social conclusions about the impossibility of influencing the predetermined course of events. The fallacy of this teaching was that atoms or elementary particles (“material points” of which real bodies are composed) do not actually obey the classical law of motion (3), which is true only for macroscopic objects (i.e., those with sufficiently large masses and sizes). Correct from the point of view of today's physics, the description of the movement in time of microscopic objects, which are the atoms and molecules that make up macroscopic bodies, is given by the equations quantum mechanics, , allowing to determine only the probability of finding a particle at a given point, but fundamentally not giving the possibility of calculating the trajectories of motion for subsequent moments of time.
36. What formula is used to calculate force (§20)?
Force, acting on the body is equal to the product of the mass of the body and the acceleration acquired by it: F=ma, Where F- force (N), m- body weight (kg), a- acceleration (m/s 2).
37. What is the force 1 N (§20)?
The basic unit of force is newton (1 N). Force 1 N- this is such a force that imparts an acceleration of 1 m / s 2 to a body with a mass of 1 kg.
38. What is called deformation (§21)?
deformation is called the change in the shape of a body under the action of a force. Deformation occurs as a result of the interaction of bodies.
39. What deformation is called elastic (§21)?
elastic deformation A body is called such a deformation, which, after the action of a force, completely disappears.
40. What is a dynamometer (force meter) (§21)?
An instrument for measuring force is called dynamometer. The dynamometer is based on elastic deformation springs.
41. What is the International System of Units (§22)?
Most countries in the world have adopted International system of units, abbreviated SI – international system. It is built on the basis of seven units of physical quantities, called basic. Three of them are studied in the 7th grade. These are units of length 1 m, time 1 s and mass 1 kg. All other units of physical quantities are called derivatives. For example, in SI the unit of speed is 1 , unit of acceleration 1 , unit of force 1 N=1 .
42. What force is called the resultant (§23)?
A force that produces the same effect on a body as several simultaneously acting forces is called resultant these forces. To find the resultant force, it is necessary to find the geometric sum of all the forces acting on the body.
43. How to find the resultant of forces directed along one straight line in one direction (§23)?
The module of the resultant forces is equal to the sum of the modules of all acting forces, if they are directed along one straight line in one direction: F=F1 +F2 +F3 +… The direction of the resultant forces in this case coincides with the direction of the acting forces.
44. How to find the resultant of forces directed along the same straight line, but in different directions (§23)?
The module of the resultant forces is equal to the difference between the modules of the acting forces, if they are directed along one straight line in opposite directions: F=F1-F2. In this case, the resultant of forces is directed towards the greater force in absolute value.
45. What is the resultant of two forces directed at right angles to each other (§23)?
geometric sum two forces directed at right angles to each other is diagonal a rectangle built on the forces acting on the body as its sides.
46. What force is called the force of elasticity (§24)?
The force of elasticity F control called the force that arises as a result of the deformation of the body and tends to return it to its original state.
47. How is Hooke's Law (§24) read?
Elastic force, arising from the deformation of the body, is directly proportional to the elongation of the body: F control = kΔ l, Where F control– elastic force (N), k- coefficient of rigidity (N/m), - deformation of the body (m). This equation expresses Hooke's law (Robert Hooke, 1635-1703, England).
48. What force is called gravity (§25)?
The force with which the earth pulls objects towards itself is called gravity . Gravity is calculated by the formula: F strand = mg, Where F heavy– gravity (N), m- body weight (kg), g\u003d 9.8 m / s 2 - free fall acceleration.
The force of gravity is always acting (applied) on the body.
49. How is the law of universal gravitation formulated (§26)?
The force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of the masses of interacting bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them: 
, Where F- force of gravity ( H), m1, m2- masses of bodies ( kg), r- distance between the centers of bodies ( m), G- gravitational constant ( 
). He first measured the value of the gravitational constant in 1798 Henry Cavendish (1731-1810, England): G = 6.672 10 -11 
50. What is called body weight (§27)?
body weight called the force with which the body, due to attraction to the Earth, acts on the support or stretches the suspension. Body weight is usually denoted by the letter P(H).
Weight always acts (applied) on a support or suspension, in contrast to gravity, which acts on a body.
51. What is weightlessness (§27)?
Weightlessness is a state where the body has no weight.
Body weight is not constant. It can change depending on the conditions in which the body is located. For example:
If the elevator is at rest or moves uniformly and in a straight line, then our weight in the elevator is equal to the force of gravity acting on us: P = F strand;
At the initial moment, when the elevator moves up with acceleration a< g , our weight increases, because the pressure force on the support (the floor of the elevator) increases: P > F heavy;
When the elevator starts to descend with acceleration a< g, our weight is decreasing because the pressure force on the support (elevator floor) decreases: R< F тяж;
If the body and its support (or suspension) move with acceleration a = g, i.e. the body is in free flight, then the weight of the body P \u003d 0, those. the body does not press on the support (or does not pull the suspension), as a result of which it is in a state of weightlessness.
If air resistance is not taken into account, then all thrown and freely falling bodies are in a state of weightlessness, because at this time they move only under the influence of gravity; do not affect the support (or suspension) and their acceleration a=g.
During training, cosmonauts fly high above the Earth on a laboratory plane, then dive (fall) with the engines turned off. At this time, they and all the bodies in the plane and the plane itself are in a state of weightlessness.
Parachutists are also in zero gravity before the parachute opens.
52. What is called pressure (§28)?
A physical quantity equal to the ratio of the force acting perpendicular to the surface to the area of \u200b\u200bthis surface is called pressure: 
where F is the force acting on the surface (N), S is the surface area (m 2), p is the pressure (Pa - pascal).
per unit of pressure the pressure is assumed to be produced by a force of 1 N acting on a surface of 1 m 2 perpendicular to this surface. The unit of pressure is called pascal
( Pa): 
52. What is called the force of friction (§29)?
The force that arises when one body moves along the surface of another and directed against the movement of the body is called friction force(tr).
Exists sliding friction, rolling friction, static friction.
54. How is the force of sliding friction calculated (§29)?
Formula for finding sliding friction force looks like: 
, where is the force of sliding friction (N), 
sliding friction coefficient, - normal pressure force (N) - this is the force acting perpendicular to the surface of the contacting bodies.
55. What is called a frame of reference (§30)?
Reference system, relative to which the motion of the body is considered, is called the body of reference, the coordinate system associated with it, and the clock (a way of counting time).
56. What reference systems are called inertial and non-inertial (§30)?
- Inertial consider all frames of reference that are at rest or move uniformly and rectilinearly relative to other inertial frames of reference.
Examples of inertial reference systems are the Earth and all bodies moving uniformly and rectilinearly relative to the Earth.
- non-inertial are all frames of reference associated with rapidly moving bodies.
57. Who discovered the basic laws of mechanics (§30)?
There are three basic laws in mechanics. They were opened in 1678. Isaac Newton (1642-1727, England).
Newton's laws are valid (act) only in inertial frames of reference.
58. How is Newton's first law (§30) formulated?
Newton's first law is formulated as follows: there are such frames of reference, relative to which translationally moving bodies keep their speed constant if no other bodies act on them.
59. How is Newton's second law (§30) formulated?
The acceleration acquired by a body as a result of interaction with other bodies is directly proportional to the force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass 
, where - acceleration of the body (m / s 2), - force (N), m– mass (kg).
60. How is Newton's third law (§30) formulated?
The bodies act on each other with forces equal in magnitude and directed in opposite directions along one straight line: = , where is the force acting from the first body on the second body, is the force acting on the first body from the second body.
It also follows from Newton's third law that forces always appear in pairs, they are applied to different bodies and therefore do not balance each other.
Forces that arise when bodies interact are forces of the same nature. For example, the force of gravity is counteracted by the force of gravity, the force of elasticity is counteracted by the force of elasticity.
61. What is called mechanical work (§31)?
mechanical work is a physical quantity directly proportional to the force acting on the body and the path traveled by it in the direction of this force: 
, where - force (N), s- distance traveled (m), A- mechanical work (J - joule).
A unit of work named after a scientist James Joule (1818-1889, England).
62. What is called power (§32)?
Power is equal to the ratio of the work done during some time to this time: 
, Where A– work (J), t – time (s), N- power (W - watt).
The unit of power is named after the inventor of the steam engine. James Watt (1736-1819, England).
63. What are called simple mechanisms (§33)?
Devices used to transform power are called simple mechanisms. These include: inclined plane, lever, block, gate, wedge and screw.
Simple mechanisms are designed to make work easier. They give a gain in strength or change the direction of the force, but they do not give a gain in work.
64. What is called the shoulder of strength ($34)?
The shortest distance between the fulcrum and the straight line along which the force acts on the lever is called shoulder of strength.
To find the shoulder of the force, it is necessary to lower the perpendicular from the fulcrum to the line along which the force acts.
65. How is the lever balance rule (§34) read?
Based on experiences over two thousand years ago Archimedes (287-212 BC, Ancient Greece) established the rule of balance of the lever: the lever is in equilibrium if the forces acting on it are inversely proportional to the shoulders of these forces: 
,
And
- forces acting on the lever (N),
And
- the shoulders of these forces (m).
66. What does the "golden rule" of mechanics (§35) say?
« Golden Rule» mechanics reads: in all use cases simple mechanisms how many times we win in strength, how many times we lose in distance. None of the simple mechanisms gives a gain in work.
For example, a moving block gives a gain in strength and a loss in travel by 2 times (F=P/2); a fixed block does not give a gain in strength (F=P), and is used to change the direction of a force.
67. What is called a coefficient useful action(efficiency) of the mechanism (§36)?
The ratio of useful work to total work is called the efficiency of the mechanism: 
, where - useful work (excluding losses) (J), - full work(taking into account losses) (J), ("this") - coefficient of performance (COP).
Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage: 
68. What is called energy (§37)?
Energy is a physical quantity that characterizes the ability of bodies to do work. Energy is usually denoted by the letter E. Energy is expressed in the same units as work, i.e. in joules (J).
69. What energy of a body is called kinetic energy (§38)?
The energy possessed by a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy: 
, where - body mass (kg), - body speed (m / s), - kinetic energy (J).
The greater the mass of the body and the speed with which it moves, the greater the kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
70. What energy of a body is called potential energy (§38)?
The energy, which is determined by the mutual arrangement of interacting bodies (or parts of the same body), is called potential energy ().
For example, the potential energy of a body raised above the ground is calculated by the formula: 
, where - body weight (kg), \u003d 9.8 m / s 2, - body height above the ground (m). The greater the height to which the body is raised, and the greater its mass, the greater the potential energy of this body.
Any deformed body has potential energy: a stretched door spring, a stretched bowstring, compressed gas in a pneumatic gun, etc.
Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word FORCE. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the first (1) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.
FORCE, -s, wives.
1. A quantity that is a measure of the mechanical interaction of bodies, causing their acceleration or deformation; characteristic of the intensity of physical processes (special). Unit of strength. Centrifugal s. C. gravity. S. current. C. light. C. inertia. S. wind. An earthquake with a magnitude of six.
2. The ability of living beings to perform physical actions, movements by muscle tension; generally physical or moral ability to actively act. Large s. in hand. Push hard. No more strength. This is beyond my strength. Lose strength. Get out of hand. Gather strength. Get back to work with fresh energy. Apply force(physical impact). forced by force(forcibly). Act by persuasion, not by force. Power politics(about the aggressive policy).
3. usually pl. The material or spiritual principle as a source of energy, activity. Forces of nature. creative forces of the people.
4. what. The ability to manifest any activity, state, characterized by a certain degree of tension, aspiration. S. will. C. imagination.
Which of the following words or combinations of words should be in place of the gap in the third sentence of the text? Write out this word.
Besides
Explanation.
Based on the context, only the phrase "All these" can be put in place of the gap.
Answer: all of these.
Answer: all these
Relevance: 2016-2017
Difficulty: normal
Codifier section: Means of communication of sentences in the text
Indicate the numbers of sentences in which the MAIN information contained in the text is correctly conveyed. Write down the numbers of these sentences.
1) The processes caused by the destruction of mountains are called weathering, although the wind does not directly participate in them.
2) Under the influence of the sun, water, vegetation and bacteria, there is a process of destruction of mountains, this is called weathering.
3) The sun is the decisive factor influencing the destruction of mountains.
4) Weathering is the process of destruction of mountains under the influence of the sun, water, vegetation and bacteria.
5) During the day, the stones expand, and at night they shrink, water gets into the cracks, when it freezes, it expands, and the cracks grow; the roots of plants penetrate into them, to which the work of bacteria also joins.
1. Not all information.
3. Wrong information.
5. Not all information, no main.
Answer: 24|42.
Answer: 24|42
Relevance: 2016-2017
Difficulty: normal
Codifier section: Information processing of texts of various styles
Rule: Task 1. Determining the main information of the text
Task 1 requires the student to be able to conduct information processing of the text.
It is always small, always only three sentences and always two correct answers.
This task, like the 2nd one, tests the ability of students to grasp the logic of the development of the author's thought of the text presented for analysis. At the same time, examinees must be aware of the the same information can be expressed using different syntactic constructions, and task 1 of control measuring materials aims students at using the entire wealth of syntactic constructions that their native language has.
To solve task 1, it is necessary to highlight the main information of the proposed text. Then:
Compress this information into one sentence yourself;
Find at least one sentence that, in your opinion, has ALL the information, and compare with what you got;
Pay attention to the fact that in THREE of the five sentences the information will be:
a) distort the text, making additions to it or violating causal relationships;
b) incomplete, that is, it will convey the content correctly, but only partially;
c) too short.
Next, we find a proposal like two drops of water similar in meaning to the calculated by us. The same information. The same facts. But - with other syntactic constructions. For example, the attributive clause will be replaced by participial turnover. Homogeneous predicates - participial phrases, etc.
Thus, we get two correct statements.
Select the particle yourself, which should be in place of the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text.
Explanation (see also Rule below).
Based on the context, the particle "precisely" can be put in place of the gap.
Answer: exactly
Answer: exactly
Rule: Task 25. Means of communication of sentences in the text
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION OF OFFERS IN THE TEXT
Several sentences connected into a whole by a topic and a main idea are called a text (from Latin textum - fabric, connection, connection).
Obviously, all sentences separated by a dot are not isolated from each other. There is a semantic connection between two adjacent sentences of the text, and not only sentences located next to each other can be related, but also separated from each other by one or more sentences. The semantic relations between sentences are different: the content of one sentence can be opposed to the content of another; the content of two or more sentences can be compared with one another; the content of the second sentence can reveal the meaning of the first or clarify one of its members, and the content of the third can reveal the meaning of the second, etc. The purpose of task 23 is to determine the type of relationship between sentences.
The wording of the task may be as follows:
Among sentences 11-18, find such (s) that (s) are connected (s) with the previous one using demonstrative pronoun, adverbs and cognate words. Write the number(s) of the offer(s)
Or: Determine the type of connection between sentences 12 and 13.
Remember that the previous one is ONE HIGHER. Thus, if the interval 11-18 is indicated, then the desired sentence is within the limits indicated in the task, and the answer 11 may be correct if this sentence is related to the 10th topic indicated in the task. Answers can be 1 or more. The score for the successful completion of the task is 1.
Let's move on to the theoretical part.
Most often, we use this text construction model: each sentence is linked to the next one, this is called chain link. (We will talk about the parallel connection below). We speak and write, we combine independent sentences into a text according to simple rules. Here's the gist: two adjacent sentences must refer to the same subject.
All types of communication are usually divided into lexical, morphological and syntactic. As a rule, when connecting sentences into text, one can use several types of communication at the same time. This greatly facilitates the search for the desired sentence in the specified fragment. Let's take a closer look at each type.
23.1. Communication with the help of lexical means.
1. Words of one thematic group.
Words of one thematic group are words that have a common lexical meaning and denoting similar but not identical concepts.
Word examples: 1) Forest, path, trees; 2) buildings, streets, sidewalks, squares; 3) water, fish, waves; hospital, nurses, emergency room, ward
Water was clean and transparent. Waves ran ashore slowly and silently.
2. Generic words.
Generic words are words related by the relationship genus - species: genus is a broader concept, species is a narrower one.
Word examples: Chamomile - flower; birch - tree; car - transport and so on.
Suggestion examples: Under the window still grew birch. How many memories I have associated with this tree...
field chamomile become a rarity. But it's unpretentious flower.
3 Lexical repetition
Lexical repetition is the repetition of the same word in the same word form.
The closest connection of sentences is expressed primarily in repetition. The repetition of one or another member of the sentence is the main feature of the chain connection. For example, in sentences Behind the garden was a forest. The forest was deaf, neglected the connection is built according to the “subject - subject” model, that is, the subject named at the end of the first sentence is repeated at the beginning of the next one; in sentences Physics is science. Science must use the dialectical method- "model predicate - subject"; in the example The boat has landed on the shore. The beach was strewn with small pebbles.- model "circumstance - subject" and so on. But if in the first two examples the words forest and science stand in each of the adjacent sentences in the same case, then the word shore has different forms. lexical repetition in USE assignments the repetition of a word in the same word form, used to enhance the impact on the reader, will be considered.
In texts of artistic and journalistic styles, the chain connection through lexical repetition often has an expressive, emotional character, especially when the repetition is at the junction of sentences:
Here the Aral Sea disappears from the map of the Fatherland sea.
Whole sea!
The use of repetition here is used to enhance the impact on the reader.
Consider examples. We do not yet take into account additional means of communication, we look only at lexical repetition.
(36) I heard a very brave man who went through the war once say: “ It used to be scary very scary." (37) He spoke the truth: he used to be scared.
(15) As an educator, I happened to meet young people who yearn for a clear and precise answer to the question of higher education. values life. (16) 0 values, allowing you to distinguish good from evil and choose the best and most worthy.
note: different forms of words refer to a different kind of connection. For more on the difference, see the paragraph on word forms.
4 Root words
Single-root words are words with the same root and common meaning.
Word examples: Motherland, be born, birth, kind; break, break, break
Suggestion examples: I'm lucky be born healthy and strong. History of my birth nothing remarkable.
Although I understood that a relationship is necessary break but he couldn't do it himself. This gap would be very painful for both of us.
5 Synonyms
Synonyms are words of the same part of speech that are similar in meaning.
Word examples: to be bored, to frown, to be sad; fun, joy, rejoicing
Suggestion examples: At parting, she said that will miss. I knew that too I will be sad through our walks and conversations.
Joy grabbed me, picked me up and carried me... jubilation seemed to have no boundaries: Lina answered, answered at last!
It should be noted that synonyms are difficult to find in the text if you need to look for a connection only with the help of synonyms. But, as a rule, along with this method of communication, others are used. So, in example 1 there is a union Same , this relationship will be discussed below.
6 Contextual synonyms
Contextual synonyms are words of the same part of speech that come together in meaning only in a given context, since they refer to the same object (feature, action).
Word examples: kitten, poor fellow, naughty; girl, student, beauty
Suggestion examples: Kitty recently lived with us. Husband took off poor guy from the tree where he climbed to escape from the dogs.
I guessed that she student. Young woman continued to be silent, despite all efforts on my part to talk her.
It is even more difficult to find these words in the text: after all, the author makes them synonyms. But along with this method of communication, others are used, which facilitates the search.
7 Antonyms
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech that are opposite in meaning.
Word examples: laughter, tears; hot Cold
Suggestion examples: I pretended to like this joke and squeezed out something like laughter. But tears strangled me, and I quickly left the room.
Her words were warm and burned. eyes chilled cold. I felt like I was under a contrast shower...
8 Contextual antonyms
Contextual antonyms are words of the same part of speech that are opposite in meaning only in this context.
Word examples: mouse - lion; house - work green - ripe
Suggestion examples: On work this man was gray mouse. At home woke up in it a lion.
ripe berries can be safely used to make jam. And here green it is better not to put, they are usually bitter, and can spoil the taste.
We draw attention to the non-random coincidence of terms(synonyms, antonyms, including contextual ones) in this task and tasks 22 and 24: it is the same lexical phenomenon, but viewed from a different angle. Lexical means may serve to connect two adjacent sentences, or they may not be a link. At the same time, they will always be a means of expression, that is, they have every chance of being the object of tasks 22 and 24. Therefore, advice: when completing task 23, pay attention to these tasks. You will learn more theoretical material about lexical means from the help rule for task 24.
23.2. Communication by means of morphological means
Along with lexical means of communication, morphological ones are also used.
1. Pronoun
A pronoun link is a link in which ONE word or MULTIPLE words from the previous sentence is replaced by a pronoun. To see such a connection, you need to know what a pronoun is, what are the ranks in meaning.
What you need to know:
Pronouns are words that are used instead of a name (noun, adjective, numeral), designate persons, point to objects, signs of objects, the number of objects, without specifically naming them.
According to the meaning and grammatical features, nine categories of pronouns are distinguished:
1) personal (I, we; you, you; he, she, it; they);
2) returnable (oneself);
3) possessive (mine, yours, ours, yours, yours); used as possessive also forms of personal: his (jacket), her work),them (merit).
4) demonstrative (this, that, such, such, such, so many);
5) defining(himself, most, all, everyone, each, different);
6) relative (who, what, what, what, which, how much, whose);
7) interrogative (who? what? what? whose? who? how much? where? when? where? from where? why? why? what?);
8) negative (no one, nothing, no one);
9) indefinite (someone, something, someone, someone, someone, someone).
Do not forget that pronouns change by case, so "you", "me", "about us", "about them", "no one", "everyone" are forms of pronouns.
As a rule, the task indicates WHAT rank the pronoun should be, but this is not necessary if there are no other pronouns in the specified period that play the role of CONNECTING elements. It must be clearly understood that NOT EVERY pronoun that occurs in the text is a link.
Let us turn to examples and determine how sentences 1 and 2 are related; 2 and 3.
1) Our school has recently been renovated. 2) I finished it many years ago, but sometimes I went and wandered around the school floors. 3) Now they are some kind of strangers, others, not mine ....
There are two pronouns in the second sentence, both personal, I And her. Which one is the one paperclip, which connects the first and second sentence? If this is a pronoun I, what is it replaced in sentence 1? Nothing. What replaces the pronoun her? Word " school from the first sentence. We conclude: communication using a personal pronoun her.
There are three pronouns in the third sentence: they are somehow mine. Only the pronoun connects with the second They(=floors from the second sentence). Rest in no way correlate with the words of the second sentence and do not replace anything. Conclusion: the second sentence connects the pronoun with the third They.
What is the practical importance of understanding this mode of communication? The fact that you can and should use pronouns instead of nouns, adjectives and numerals. Use, but do not abuse, as the abundance of the words "he", "his", "them" sometimes leads to misunderstanding and confusion.
2. Adverb
Communication with the help of adverbs is a connection, the features of which depend on the meaning of the adverb.
To see such a connection, you need to know what an adverb is, what are the ranks in meaning.
Adverbs are invariable words that denote a sign by action and refer to the verb.
Adverbs of the following meanings can be used as means of communication:
Time and space: below, on the left, near, at the beginning, long ago and the like.
Suggestion examples: We got to work. At the beginning it was hard: it was not possible to work in a team, there were no ideas. After got involved, felt their strength and even got excited.note: Sentences 2 and 3 are related to sentence 1 using the indicated adverbs. This type of connection is called parallel connection.
We climbed to the very top of the mountain. Around we were only the tops of the trees. Near clouds floated with us. A similar example of a parallel connection: 2 and 3 are related to 1 using the indicated adverbs.
demonstrative adverbs. (They are sometimes called pronominal adverbs, since they do not name how or where the action takes place, but only point to it): there, here, there, then, from there, because, so and the like.
Suggestion examples: I vacationed last summer in one of the sanatoriums in Belarus. From there it was almost impossible to make a phone call, let alone work on the Internet. The adverb "from there" replaces the whole phrase.
Life went on as usual: I studied, my mother and father worked, my sister got married and left with her husband. So three years have passed. The adverb "so" summarizes the entire content of the previous sentence.
It is possible to use and other categories of adverbs, for example, negative: B school and university I didn't have good relationships with my peers. Yes and nowhere did not add up; however, I did not suffer from this, I had a family, I had brothers, they replaced my friends.
3. Union
Connection with the help of unions is the most common type of connection, due to which various relationships arise between sentences related to the meaning of the union.
Communication with the help of coordinating unions: but, and, but, but, also, or, however and others. The task may or may not specify the type of union. Therefore, the material on unions should be repeated.
Details about coordinating conjunctions are described in a special section.
Suggestion examples: By the end of the weekend, we were incredibly tired. But the mood was amazing! Communication with the help of the adversative union "but".
That's how it's always been... Or that's how it seemed to me...Communication with the help of a separating union "or".
We draw attention to the fact that very rarely only one union participates in the formation of a connection: as a rule, lexical means of communication are used simultaneously.
Communication using subordinating unions: for, so. A very atypical case, since subordinating conjunctions connect sentences as part of a complex one. In our opinion, with such a connection, there is a deliberate break in the structure of a complex sentence.
Suggestion examples: I was in total despair... For I did not know what to do, where to go and, most importantly, who to turn to for help. The union for matters because, because, indicates the reason for the state of the hero.
I didn’t pass the exams, I didn’t enter the institute, I couldn’t ask for help from my parents and I wouldn’t do it. So There was only one thing left to do: find a job. The union "so" has the meaning of the consequence.
4. Particles
Communication with particles always accompanies other types of communication.
Particles after all, and only, here, out, only, even, the same bring additional shades to the proposal.
Suggestion examples: Call your parents, talk to them. After all It's so simple and so difficult at the same time - to love ...
Everyone in the house was already asleep. AND only grandmother muttered softly: she always read prayers before going to bed, begging the powers of heaven for a better share for us.
After the departure of her husband, it became empty in the soul and deserted in the house. Even the cat, which used to run like a meteor around the apartment, only yawns sleepily and still strives to climb into my arms. Here Whose hands should I lean on...Pay attention, connecting particles are at the beginning of the sentence.
5. Word forms
Communication using the word form consists in the fact that in adjacent sentences the same word is used in different
- if this noun - number and case
- If adjective - gender, number and case
- If pronoun - gender, number and case depending on grade
- If verb in person (gender), number, tense
Verbs and participles, verbs and participles are considered different words.
Suggestion examples: Noise gradually increased. From this growing noise became uncomfortable.
I knew my son captain. With myself captain fate did not bring me, but I knew that it was only a matter of time.
note: in the task, “word forms” can be written, and then this is ONE word in different forms;
“forms of words” - and these are already two words repeated in adjacent sentences.
The difference between word forms and lexical repetition is of particular complexity.
Information for the teacher.
Consider, as an example, the most difficult task of the real USE in 2016. We give the full fragment published on the FIPI website in "Guidelines for teachers (2016)"
Examinees found it difficult to complete task 23 when the condition of the task required distinguishing between the form of a word and lexical repetition as a means of connecting sentences in the text. In these cases, when analyzing the language material, students should pay attention to the fact that lexical repetition involves the repetition of a lexical unit with a special stylistic task.
Here is the condition of task 23 and a fragment of the text of one of the options for the USE in 2016:
“Among sentences 8–18, find one that is related to the previous one with the help of lexical repetition. Write the number of this offer.
Below is the beginning of the text given for analysis.
- (7) What kind of an artist are you when you don’t love your native land, an eccentric!
(8) Maybe that's why Berg did not succeed in landscapes. (9) He preferred a portrait, a poster. (10) He tried to find the style of his time, but these attempts were full of failures and ambiguities.
(11) Once Berg received a letter from the artist Yartsev. (12) He called him to come to the Murom forests, where he spent the summer.
(13) August was hot and calm. (14) Yartsev lived far from the deserted station, in the forest, on the shore of a deep lake with black water. (15) He rented a hut from a forester. (16) Berg was taken to the lake by the forester's son Vanya Zotov, a stooped and shy boy. (17) Berg lived on the lake for about a month. (18) He was not going to work and did not take oil paints with him.
Proposition 15 is related to Proposition 14 by personal pronoun "He"(Yartsev).
Proposition 16 is related to Proposition 15 by word forms "forester": a prepositional case form controlled by a verb, and a non-prepositional form controlled by a noun. These word forms express different meanings: the meaning of the object and the meaning of belonging, and the use of the considered word forms does not carry a stylistic load.
Proposition 17 is related to Proposition 16 by word forms ("on the lake - on the lake"; "Berga - Berg").
Proposition 18 is related to the previous one by means of personal pronoun "he"(Berg).
Correct answer in task 23 this option – 10. It is sentence 10 of the text that is connected with the previous one (sentence 9) with the help of lexical repetition (the word "he").
It should be noted that among the authors of various manuals there is no consensus, what is considered a lexical repetition - the same word in different cases (persons, numbers) or in the same one. The authors of the books of the publishing house "National Education", "Exam", "Legion" (authors Tsybulko I.P., Vasiliev I.P., Gosteva Yu.N., Senina N.A.) do not give a single example in which the words V various forms would be considered lexical repetition.
At the same time, very difficult cases, in which words in different cases coincide in form, are considered differently in manuals. The author of the books N.A. Senina sees in this the form of the word. I.P. Tsybulko (based on a 2017 book) sees lexical repetition. So, in sentences like I saw the sea in a dream. The sea was calling me the word “sea” has different cases, but at the same time there is undoubtedly the same stylistic task that I.P. Tsybulko. Without delving into the linguistic solution of this issue, we will indicate the position of the RESHUEGE and give recommendations.
1. All obviously non-matching forms are word forms, not lexical repetition. Please note that we are talking about the same linguistic phenomenon as in task 24. And in 24, lexical repetitions are only repeated words, in the same forms.
2. There will be no coinciding forms in the tasks for the RESHUEGE: if the linguists-specialists themselves cannot figure it out, then the graduates of the school cannot do it.
3. If the exam comes across tasks with similar difficulties, we look at those additional means of communication that will help you make your choice. After all, the compilers of KIMs can have their own, separate opinion. Unfortunately, this may be the case.
23.3 Syntactic means.
Introductory words
Communication with the help of introductory words accompanies, complements any other connection, complementing the shades of meanings characteristic of introductory words.
Of course, you need to know which words are introductory.
He was hired. Unfortunately, Anton was too ambitious. On the one side, the company needed such personalities, on the other hand, he was not inferior to anyone and in nothing, if something was, as he said, below his level.
We give examples of the definition of means of communication in a small text.
(1) We met Masha a few months ago. (2) My parents have not yet seen her, but did not insist on meeting her. (3) It seemed that she also did not strive for rapprochement, which upset me a little.
Let's determine how the sentences in this text are related.
Sentence 2 is related to sentence 1 by a personal pronoun her, which replaces the name Masha in offer 1.
Sentence 3 is related to sentence 2 using word forms she her: "she" is the nominative form, "her" is the genitive form.
In addition, sentence 3 has other means of communication: it is a union Same, introductory word seemed, rows of synonymous constructions did not insist on meeting And didn't want to get close.
Explanation.
Only value 1 is suitable: A quantity that measures the mechanical interaction of bodies that causes them to accelerate or deform.
Answer: 1.
Force is a measure of the mechanical interaction of material bodies with each other. The interaction is characterized by magnitude and direction, i.e. there is strength vector quantity, characterized by an application point (A), direction (line of action), magnitude (modulus) (Fig. 1.1). Force is measured in newtons. Fig.1.1
The forces acting on a body (or system of bodies) are divided into external and internal. External forces are active and reactive. active forces cause body movement reactive tend to resist the movement of the body under the influence of external forces.
Axioms of statics. As a result of the generalization of human experience, general laws of mechanical motion were established, expressed in the form of laws and theorems. All theorems and equations of statics are derived from several starting points. These provisions are called the axioms of statics.
Bodies that restrict movement other bodies are called connections.
Forces acting from bonds and preventing movement are called bond reactions.
The reaction of communication is always directed from that side, where you can't move.
All connections can be divided into several types.
Communication - smooth support (no friction)
The support reaction is applied at the fulcrum and is always directed perpendicular to the support (Fig. 1.2).
Flexible connection(thread, rope, cable, chain.) The load is suspended on two threads
The reaction of the thread is directed along the thread away from the body, while the thread can only be stretched (Fig. 1.3).
Fig.1.3 1.4
Rigid rod. In the diagrams, the rods are depicted with a thick solid line (Fig. 1.4). The rod can be compressed or stretched. The reaction of the rod is directed along the rod.
Articulated support. The hinge allows rotation around the anchor point. There are two types of hinges.
Movable hinge (Fig. 1.5). The reaction of the movable hinge is directed perpendicular to the supporting surface, since only movement across the supporting surface is not allowed. The reaction of the movable hinge is directed perpendicular to the supporting surface, since only movement across the supporting surface is not allowed .
Rice. 1.5 Fig. 1.6
Fixed hinge. The reaction of such a support passes through the hinge axis, but is known in direction. It is customary to depict it in the form of two components: horizontal and vertical (Rx; Ry) (Fig. 1.6)
Pinching or “hard termination” (Fig. 1.7)
Reactive force it is customary to represent in the form of two components along the coordinate axes R = Rx + Ry
Rice. 1.7 Fig.1.8
Connection in the form of a rough plane
R n - normal reaction;
F tr - friction force, tangential reaction.
The total reaction is equal to the geometric sum: 
(Fig. 1.8)
Connection in the form of an edge of a dihedral angle or a point support.
The reaction is directed perpendicular to the surface of the support body (Fig. 1.9)
Exercise. Answer the questions.
1. What forces of the system can be removed without disturbing the mechanical state of the body (Fig. 1.10)? Complete the drawing.
2. Which of the given systems of forces is balanced in Fig. 1.11? Complete the drawing.
3. Indicate the possible direction of reactions in the supports in Fig.1.12. Complete the drawings.
4. The load is suspended on rods and ropes and is in balance (Fig. 1.12). Depict the system of forces acting on the hinge A.
5. What are the types of supports shown in Figure 1.13 called (do not perform drawings)?
Topic 1.2 Flat system of converging forces / 3, pp. 12-27/
Know the geometric and analytical methods for determining the resultant system of forces, the equilibrium conditions flat system converging forces.
To be able to determine the resultant, to solve equilibrium problems in geometric and analytical forms.
