Having a good carpenter's tool and knowing how to use it, you can make many necessary and useful things in everyday life. The most common tools are found in almost every home. These are an axe, a hacksaw, pliers, a chisel and a hammer.
- Carpenter's Ax
- Hacksaw
- Carpenter's pliers
- Set of chisels
- Carpenter's Hammer
Now let's look at each of these tools. This set is constantly replenished as needed, new skills and abilities are developed. Most of these items have mechanical analogues, but not every tool manual application can be replaced.
Carpentry tools include a hammer, a hacksaw, an axe, a plane, a chisel, a chisel, a knife, pliers, a screwdriver, a clamp, and a brace.
- Plane
- Bit
- Carpenter's knife
- Clamp
- Kolovorot
In the manufacture of woodworking tools, high-quality carbon steel U8, U10, U11, U12, U13 is used.
Description and characteristics of the tool
Hammer. The hammer head can be square, round, or rectangular. The opposite end is slightly narrowed and flattened. The hammer handle is made from hard rocks wood (birch, acacia) Weight from 30 to 450 grams.
Mallet. The same hammer, made of hard wood, is used when assembling panels or other wood products.
Axe. Also necessary for a carpenter. With the help of an ax you can chop off branches or trim logs. The ax handle relative to the handle is located at a 90-degree angle.
Hacksaw. It has thick and thin blades, on which large or small teeth are cut. Hacksaws with a thicker blade are used when sawing boards, beams or other wood that does not require finishing. The teeth for such a hacksaw are sharpened one at a time, from left to right, with a pitch of 0.5 mm.
A hacksaw with a thin blade and fine teeth is usually used for cutting joints or grooves. Thanks to fine teeth the cut turns out more even, without traces of tearing on the edge. To cut any products from plywood, chipboard or laminate, it is best to use a jigsaw. Thanks to its ductility and tooth-like sharpening, it can easily cope with these materials.
Plane. With its help, removing a layer of wood makes the surface more even. Used for different types of work Various types planes. In order to process hard wood, a plane with a metal body is used, as it will glide better along such a plane.
Sherhebel. This is also a type of plane that is used for rough processing of the surface layer. A special feature of the scherhebel is that its cutting part is made in a semicircle, thanks to which it removes irregularities and prepares the material for finishing. After the sherhebel there is processing with a single plane. Processing is required to complete the process double plane. After it, the surface becomes even and smooth. Each knife must have a chip breaker.
Joiner, semi-jointer. The length of their pads is 70-80mm and 40-50mm, respectively. After the jointer, the surface is processed with a double plane. The sander has two oblique knives, in fact it is a shortened plane; it planes well the scuffs left behind by the sherhebel. It does not have a chip breaker and therefore comes out with curling chips.
Zinubel. Also a type of planer, it is used to process the surface before gluing. You can process plywood and glue veneer, resulting in a perfectly flat surface.
Zinubel
- Chisels. There are several types of chisels; they can be used to level the surface, if it is impossible to do this with a plane. The width of the chisel blade determines which one to use when making a recess. A semicircular chisel is used when processing round or oval holes.
- Caesars are one of the varieties of semicircular chisels; they are steep and sloping. An angle chisel is used to obtain a geometric shape.
- Cranberries are used to level the bottom of the groove. The main difference between cranberry and other types of chisels is the characteristic amount of bending.
Bit. It looks like a chisel, but is not one; it is intended for chiseling knots and all kinds of irregularities, making recesses, and is also suitable for cutting veneer. The sharpening of the cutter is varied.
Knife-scrape. It slides over the surface and is used for scraping, remaining, in essence, a cutting knife.
Cycle knife
Clamps. Used for gluing boards and other wood parts. Also, in addition to clamps, vices, clamps and presses are used.
Clamps
When connecting wooden parts, in addition to glue (casein, PVA), self-tapping screws and bolts are widely used.
Well, the most important thing is the markup. When marking parts, use a ruler, square and various kinds patterns (templates).
Carpenter's square
In the video, a square from an American company
All the tools described above are necessary for carpentry work. When using them, the production of any wood product is guaranteed.
“There are no interesting books without conversations and pictures,” says Alice in Lewis Carroll. The characters in “History of England for Children” by Elena Chudinova are quite talkative. The Britons, however, can be heard a little worse, the Saxons speak louder, and the Normans simply do not shut their mouths. “Meanwhile, the commandant’s wife was cradling the child, singing a song: “Sleep, my child, sleep, close your sleepy eyes. Black Douglas will not come, he will not interrupt the baby’s sleep!” “You’re wrong, woman,” someone suddenly said behind her. The woman turned around and saw a dark man in black...
Humorous games for children Tatyana Obraztsova
This book is a unique publication that contains humorous games for children of different ages. Fun will help develop a sense of humor in a small child, and older children will be taught to draw the line between humor, sarcasm, a good joke and just friendly “prank.” In this book, adults will find an excellent tool for entertaining their children and a lot of fun in which they can take part together, and children - so that their friends can also get involved in them. The good thing about the publication is that it is designed for any age, and take note and then use...
Role-playing games for children Tatyana Obraztsova
« Role-playing games for children" is a kind of collection various games, promoting the creative development of the younger generation. Many of the proposed game moments are based on fragments of films, books, fairy tales and simply any life situations, which involve the inclusion of children's imagination and teaching children the ability to get used to the corresponding image. The games presented in the book will make children's leisure time not only exciting, but also instructive.
Journey to the ancient world. Illustrated… Jacqueline Dineen
The history of mankind is more than 4 million years old. How did our distant ancestors live, what did they do, what did their houses and clothes look like? The next volume of the illustrated encyclopedia for children is devoted to these and many other questions that are studied by anthropology, archeology and history. Mysteries of disappeared civilizations await young readers, and bright illustrations will make them travel to ancient world unforgettable.
Japanese fairy tales (arranged for children by N. Hoza) Undefined Undefined
Japanese fairy tales. Processing for children by N. Khoza. Drawings by N. Kochergin. L.: Children's literature, 1958 Scan, OCR, SpellCheck, Formatting: Andrey from Arkhangelsk, 2008 Taken from http://publ.lib.ru/ARCHIVES/H/HODZA_Nison_Aleksandrovich/_Hodza_N._A..html
Music therapy for children with autism Juliet Alvin
The book Music Therapy for Children with Autism was first published in 1978. It was the first publication to address the impact of music therapy on the development of children with autism and remains one of the seminal guidelines in the field. The book describes in detail specific methods of working as a music therapist with children with varying degrees of autism. The description of the psychotherapeutic process is systematized, the author identifies individual stages of work. The techniques are accompanied by examples from practical classes...
Complete encyclopedia of modern developmental... Natalia Voznyuk
The book contains entertaining and fun tasks for children. The games presented in it are fascinating in form and content; they are aimed at developing the mental, volitional and creative abilities of children of all ages. The book will also be of interest to parents. With the help of special tests, they will be able to better understand their child’s inclinations and understand his interests.
Finger games for children from one to three years old... Svetlana Ermakova
Is it possible to have happy faces during boring school lessons and activities? kindergarten? Of course they are possible! And they will help you with this finger games. Funny poems for fun physical education sessions will appeal to both adults and children. With their help, you can switch the attention of kids, improve their memory and develop fine motor skills hands, which is very important for mental and physical development. And for the little ones, games at first can simply be poems that are easily memorized.
Logic games for children Tatyana Obraztsova
In the bustle of everyday life, we sometimes do not always think logically and reason sensibly. And, as a rule, our problems stem from this. After all, it is logic that gives us the opportunity to understand seemingly insoluble issues. In addition, the ability to think logically allows us to understand and solve not only the most complex mathematical problems and theorems, but also to sensibly evaluate everything that happens in our lives. We present to your attention a collection of games aimed at developing a child’s intelligence, linguistic sense, creative abilities, and the ability to think outside the box...
Musical games for children Tatyana Obraztsova
The book contains descriptions of musical games that children will play with great pleasure in kindergarten, at school or at home. The publication provides examples of a variety of musical games designed for children of the most different ages– from 3 years to older school age. These are games that develop a sense of rhythm, an ear for music and memory, musical, humorous and ritual, as well as forming children’s imaginative thinking and joint creativity skills. The material in the book will be of great interest to methodologists, educators and music teachers...
Psychological games for children Tatyana Obraztsova
A collection of various games that promote the correct, comprehensive psychological development of children. The games presented in the book are designed for all ages - from children to teenagers. The collection will become an indispensable assistant parents and teachers who want to make the process of raising children interesting and unobtrusive.
Life of St. Seraphim for children Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov)
My joy, acquire the Holy Spirit and thousands around you will be saved. The human heart can contain the Kingdom of God. If only we ourselves loved Him, our Heavenly Father, truly, in a filial way. The Lord listens equally to a monk and a layman, a simple Christian, as long as they are Orthodox and love God from the depths of their souls, and have faith in Him even as small as a mustard seed. The Lord Himself says: “All things are possible to him who believes!” Whatever you ask the Lord God for, accept it all, as long as it is for the glory of God or for the benefit of your neighbor. But if…
L.-M., Rainbow. 1927. 16 p. with ill. Circulation 8000 copies. In color publisher's lithographed cover. 27.4x22 cm. Certainly, one of the bright masterpieces of Vladimir Vasilyevich Lebedev in the field of illustration of Soviet children's books!
Over the years of the existence of the Soviet state, illustrated books for children have gone through a long and difficult path of development, sometimes going through difficult periods, more often rising to significant heights of fine art. Many painters and graphic artists who worked in children's books not only fulfilled the task of educating the younger generations, but also modified and found new principles for organizing the book itself. Moreover, in the field of children's books, they often solved pictorial and plastic problems that were important for the visual language in general. Many examples of this can be found in our time, but especially many in the 1920s - the time of the formation of Soviet children's books. Among the artists who worked and are working for children, there were and are masters who played a significant role in the development of Soviet art. K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, B. M. Kustodiev, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, S. V. Chekhonin, D. I. Mitrokhin, then V. V. Lebedev, A. F. Pakhomov, P. I. Sokolov, V. M. Konashevich, V. S. Alfeevsky, N. A. Tyrsa, Yu. A. Vasnetsov, A. N. Yakobson, E. I. Charushin, V. I. Kurdov - the list is easy to continue, but also those few artists listed make up an impressive Areopagus. Their creative essence was largely reflected in their works for children. However, the majority of books by these masters have long since become bibliographic rarities. The publishing house “Artist of the RSFSR” made an experiment by releasing several old books, for example, “Diving Base” by A. N. Samokhvalov or “Here’s How Absent-Minded” by S. Ya. Marshak with drawings by V. V. Lebedev. Their success made it possible to begin publishing collections of children's books with drawings by one or more artists. A series of such collections, perhaps, will constitute a kind of anthology on the history of Soviet illustrated books for children. This collection opens the series, and this is no coincidence: V.V. Lebedev is one of the most significant artists and reformers of children's books. The author of the text of almost all the books included in the collection is S. Ya. Marshak. In numerous reprints, the poet often changed his poems, which ultimately differ significantly from the original version. This circumstance did not allow us to use the latest edition of S. Ya. Marshak, because V. Lebedev’s illustrations would have been far from the text and even out of any connection with it. Thus, all books, except for R. Kipling’s fairy tale “The Little Elephant,” are printed according to the first edition, preserving all the inscriptions on the covers and those “backs” that have artistic or other significance.
In the twenties of the current century, children's illustrated books experienced a period of extraordinary growth and growth in artistic qualities. On international exhibitions The works of Russian masters of children's books attracted the close attention of the world art community and entered the circle of undeniable achievements of the young Soviet visual culture. In the practice of leading artists, a consistent and harmonious system of design and illustration of children's books then developed; it received theoretical justification in articles and speeches by critics. In the heyday of children's books in the twenties, there was much that was unexpected, but nothing was accidental. A success that exceeded any expectations would hardly have arisen only as a result of the spontaneous development of the art of book graphics. The key to success was not only that artists gifted with creative ingenuity and outstanding talent began working for children. Children's books have risen to a new, unprecedented level as a result of conscious and purposeful collective work, in which numerous cultural figures, artists, writers, critics, and publishing managers participated. It was in the twenties that the enormous importance of children's books for the ideological, moral and aesthetic education of younger generations was especially acutely realized. The children's book had to express a new understanding of reality, had to be embodied in figurative form a new, integral and strictly thought-out system of socio-political ideas generated by the October Revolution, “It was not easy to transfer literature for children from the common truths and common morality, which noble and bourgeois children lived peacefully for at least a century, to the path big problems, to open the gates to the lives of adults for children, to show them not only the goals, but also all the difficulties of our work, all the dangers of our struggle. It was not easy to switch from the usual cozy whisper to a voice intelligible to millions, from an indoor “heartfelt word” to a broadcast designed for the most remote corners of the USSR.” This is how S. Ya. Marshak, one of the leaders of the creative movement that created the new children's book, subsequently defined this task. The literary environment then put forward a group of outstanding poets and prose writers. The names of S. Ya. Marshak, K. I. Chukovsky, B. S. Zhitkov rightfully entered the history of Soviet children's literature. No less active were artists, designers and illustrators of children's books, creators of books for children who do not yet know how to read and write - picture books in which the story is told only by means of drawing.
In Leningrad, artists compiled large group, headed by Vladimir Vasilyevich Lebedev (1891-1967), a remarkable master of painting, easel drawing and book graphics. In developing new system Lebedev played a leading role in the design and illustration of children's books. When the Children's Department of the State Publishing House was formed in Leningrad at the end of 1924, Lebedev headed its artistic editorial board. Lebedev’s like-minded people united around the new publishing organization; These were partly masters who belonged to his generation, and partly representatives of artistic youth who became his students. Children's books designed and illustrated by Lebedev in the twenties are among the best and most characteristic achievements of graphic art of that time. They laid the foundation for a new Soviet book and graphic tradition. This is a Soviet classic that continues to influence the development of the art of books in our country. Children's books with drawings by Lebedev have long become a bibliographic rarity. Meanwhile, the artist’s drawings fully retained the power of a direct aesthetic impact on viewers and did not lose any of their inherent pedagogical qualities. They are equally interesting for adults and children. This, however, is the unchanging fate of genuine art: it never becomes outdated. Children's books, designed and illustrated by Lebedev between 1923 and 1930, belong to the heyday of the artist's activity and reflect the evolution of his visual style and the nature of his creative quest. Lebedev began working for children in pre-revolutionary times. At the age of twenty, he became a regular contributor to the children's illustrated magazine "Galchonok". Later, in 1918, he participated in the illustration of the children's almanac “Yolka”, compiled by A. N. Benois and K. I. Chukovsky, edited by M. Gorky. This performance by the young artist was subsequently highly appreciated by art critics. The almanac “Yolka”, according to the fair remark of E. Ya. Danko, “mechanically connected the remnants of the past of the children’s book and the beginning of the path of its future development. The title picture by A. Benois is a pale patterned tree and pretty winged elves around it, then there are roses, herbs and the boneless, faceless baby of S. Chekhonin. Then further - pictures by Yu. Annenkov to the fairy tale by K. Chukovsky, where humanized samovars, creamers, cups grimace from a tangle of broken lines and lace touches - and suddenly, quite unexpectedly, the first real image in a children's book for many years - the white-toothed and black-faced "Chimney Sweep" » V. Lebedeva. Vitally cheerful, built with simple strong lines, with a broom under his arm, with a donut in a beautifully drawn hand, it is almost stunning in its concreteness among the thin pattern of other pages.” The critic's review subtly noted the main creative feature that characterizes Lebedev and sharply distinguishes him from other masters of book graphics of the time, stylists and decorative artists. Concreteness, life-like authenticity of the image was the fundamentally new quality that Lebedev sought to introduce into the illustration for a children's book, turning it from stylization to a living and direct observation of real nature. Lebedev put into his drawings all his vast, long-accumulated experience as a realist artist, a keen and often ironic observer who carefully and systematically studied the surrounding reality. The artist had deep and varied professional knowledge. He perfectly studied the plasticity of the human figure in all the diversity of its movements. Sports, ballet and circus, and finally, human labor processes with their peculiar rhythms were the constant object of his attentive and passionately interested observations. Lebedev became an expert in many crafts and, perhaps, valued nothing as highly as professional skill. When Lebedev began working in Detgiz, he already had considerable experience in the creative interpretation of his knowledge, the ability to generalize observations and masterfully express them using a variety of graphic techniques. He was already a recognized master of watercolor and easel drawing, magazine graphics and political posters. He included hundreds of caricatures, cursory sketches and carefully finished genre compositions published in the New Satyricon and other magazines, as well as extensive cycles of pencil and brush studies depicting nudes; a series of easel drawings created in 1920-1921 under the general title “Washerwomen” attracted the close attention of art critics; finally, in the same 1920-1921 years, he created about six hundred poster sheets of “Windows of GROWTH”, which played a huge role in the development Soviet poster. During the same period, Lebedev turned to constant and systematic work in children's books.
In 1921, he made an experimental color lithographed book, “The Adventures of Chuch-lo,” with text written by the artist himself. The search for “children's specifics” determined the appearance and content of this little book. Its text is written as if from the perspective of a child and recreates the intonation of a child’s speech. The artist completed the entire book on lithographic stone, imitating the irregularity and carelessness of a child’s handwriting; Many illustrations imitate techniques children's drawing. Lebedev took the wrong path here, which he later condemned. According to his own statement, “if an artist deliberately thinks like a child, then he will not succeed, and his drawing will be easily exposed as artistically false and tendentiously pedological.” However, despite the failure of this book, it contained qualities that later found fruitful development in Lebedev’s graphics. The best of the illustrations are free from deliberate “childishness” and can serve as an exemplary example of a pictorial drawing, sharp and expressive, in which the aesthetic possibilities inherent in the technique of color autolithography are consciously and purposefully used. The failure of “The Adventures of Chuch-lo” did not dissuade the artist from the quest outlined in this book.
In 1923-1924, the Mysl publishing house published, one after another, four books of Russian folk tales designed by Lebedev: “The Bear”, “Three Goats”, “The Golden Egg” and “The Hare, the Rooster and the Fox”, in color lithographed covers and with lithographed illustrations, black in the first two books and color in the last. Three of them are reproduced in this publication. The design of these tales represents the result of Lebedev’s innovative quest in the field of book art. The artist subjected a decisive restructuring to all the basic principles of the classical linear contour drawing with its volumetric forms modeled by chiaroscuro. The artist no less deeply reworked the techniques of decorative planar silhouette drawing, characteristic of Russian book graphics in the first two decades of the 20th century. The contour line that closes the silhouette of the form is of only secondary importance in Lebedev’s graphics. The main structural role is played not by line, but by a spot of color with elusive outlines, blurring in the light-spatial environment; Instead of linear relationships, there are relationships of pictorial masses and tonalities, and the form is not modeled, but is, as it were, permeated with light. Color becomes the most important means of emotional and figurative expression. But in contrast to painted pictures, which were not uncommon in the practice of Russian book illustration at the beginning of the 20th century, color in Lebedev’s drawings is not superimposed on the finished form, but merges with it into an indissoluble artistic unity. The search for “children's specificity” and fairy tale images is now directed in a completely different way than in “The Adventures of Chuch-lo.” The artist refuses to imitate techniques children's creativity. Turning to the folklore theme, he seeks support for his quest in the traditions of visual folklore, which have common origins and common fundamental principles with folk tales. Russian popular prints with their laconic and apt generalization of form, with their characteristic bright multicolored and expressive characteristics of fairy-tale characters, become his model. However, in Lebedev’s illustrations there is no imitation or stylization. The techniques of folk popular print are barely perceptible in the drawings and are processed by the artist completely independently and creatively. In 1921, simultaneously with “The Adventures of Chuch-lo,” Lebedev made drawings for R. Kipling’s fairy tale “The Little Elephant,” which, like the illustrations for “The Adventures of Chuch-lo,” served as the starting point for the artist’s further creative quests. It was in this work that the features of Lebedev’s new book and graphic system were most clearly formed. In the design of “Baby Elephant” the artist relied on the experience of his work on the poster sheets of “Windows of GROWTH”. The language of his graphics is emphatically laconic; it conveys only the basic connections of phenomena. The form unfolds on a plane, nowhere disturbed by motifs of illusory depth. There is no object background, no landscape, no ornament - a white book sheet becomes the environment in which the characters from Kipling’s fairy tale live and act. Refusing the contour line, the artist builds a drawing on the combination and contrast of gray and black planes, summarizing the shape and plasticity of the depicted nature. The techniques developed in the design of “The Little Elephant” are complemented by an extensive group of Lebedev’s books, including “Circus”, “Ice Cream”, “Yesterday and Today”, “How a Plane Made a Plane”. All these books were published by the Raduga publishing house, the first three in 1925, the last two years later. During this period, a rapprochement between Lebedev and Marshak began, which later turned into a close and long-term creative partnership. Differences in creative temperaments did not interfere with teamwork. Marshak's soft lyricism and Lebedev's sharp irony complemented each other perfectly. The texts of all the books listed above were written by Marshak.
Membership card of the trade union of arts workers of the USSR Vladimir Lebedev
The first of them - "Circus" - was more Lebedev's than Marshakov's. The poet only wrote poetic captions for the artist’s finished watercolors. This is one of Lebedev's most fun and inventively constructed color books. The means of depicting the characters of the “Circus” - athletes, tightrope walkers, clowns and trained animals - is the juxtaposition of contrasting, brightly colored planes, which goes back to poster techniques. Their color, always local, intense and pure, forms a harmonious, finely thought out decorative harmony in the book. Far from imitating the techniques of children's drawings, the artist managed to convey the style of perception and thinking characteristic of children. The figures of people and animals are generalized almost to the edge of the diagram; but the diagram captures the main thing - the swiftness and eccentricity of the movement. A series of color illustrations for “Ice Cream” is based on similar principles. There is no plot action in the pictures, the characters are not given individual characteristics. The artist creates not images, but rather generalized representations of an old bearded ice cream man, a cheerful skater, a dashing skier and other characters in Marshak’s poetic story; main character, “fat man,” combines the features of a clown and a caricatured nepman. Thanks to the power of typification that the artist achieves here, his drawings become understandable and excitingly interesting to the little viewer. Best job in this group is the design of the book “Yesterday and Today”. It would hardly be an exaggeration to call it one of the peaks in the art of children's books. The artistic system created by Lebedev reveals all the possibilities inherent in it. In the book by Marshak and Lebedev, a poetic and at the same time satirical dialogue of things is developed. An electric light bulb competes with a stearine candle and a kerosene lamp, a typewriter with a pen and inkwell, a water pipe with a rocker and buckets. The idea of the poet and artist can be called, in a certain sense, programmatic for children's literature of the twenties. In the form of a fairy tale, accessible to the smallest children, the most important processes taking place in the country are told, about changes in the way of life, about the struggle of the old way of life with the new and about the inevitable victory of the new. Lebedev subordinated to this plan all means of artistic expression, found and used with inexhaustible invention. The contrast between old and new is given not only in the theme, but also in the very language of the drawing, in color, rhythm and depiction techniques. The comparison of “yesterday” and “today” begins with the cover. Under the large black inscription “Yesterday”, hunched silhouettes of the past are outlined in black and gray blurry spots; an old woman in a cap and shawl with a kerosene lamp in her hands, a bearded water carrier and a shabby clerical official in a tailcoat carrying a pen and inkwell. And below, along the red letters of the inscription “Today,” the clear, brightly colored figures of an electrician, a plumber and a girl with a typewriter are vigorously marching. The cover is reminiscent of ROSTA posters in color and rhythm; and the next sheet, with images of “old world” objects and a deliberately casual handwritten font, harks back to the traditions of sign art. The debate between the old and the new runs through the entire book. The artist inventively reveals the peculiar “psychology of objects”, expressed, however, not by plot action (it is not in the pictures), but by graphic composition, color and manner of drawing. The burnt stearin candle is broken and twisted, kerosene lamp hunched over like an old woman, her lampshade and rickety glass painted in faded tones. In depicting a light bulb, the artist intensified the color and used the contrasts of red, white and black so skillfully that the entire page appears to glow. The visual and decorative elements of the design, all its heterogeneous and intentionally different stylistic motifs - from a genre satirical picture to a drawing diagram, from a carefully recreated “handwritten” page to a brightly colored and poster-like simplified image of village girls with rocker arms, from the cover to the final illustration - are connected between a unifying rhythm and form a harmonious whole. Lebedev managed to achieve the mutual dependence of all the graphic elements of the book and achieve architectonic clarity, which he considered the main goal and the best achievement of the system he created. No less programmatic in ideological content and just as deeply and strictly thought out is the visual design of the book “How a Plane Made a Plane.” Text and graphics here merge into an indissoluble unity; there is no image of a person in the book. A sophisticated master of still life, Lebedev shows the viewer only things, but achieves an impression of such materiality and concreteness that had hitherto had no equal in book graphics. Lebedev's drawings convey texture - and smooth surface a wooden plane, the flexibility and shine of a steel saw, the heaviness and density of an unplaned tree trunk. The theme of the book is the poetry of labor, spiritualizing working tools. Revealing the guiding principles of his work in a children's book, Lebedev wrote: “Trying to truly approach the interests of the child, somehow getting used to his desires, remembering himself in childhood is one of main tasks artist... Consciously and with unflagging energy maintain a certain rhythm throughout the entire book, now speeding up, now slowing down smooth transitions, - this is also perhaps the main condition... The page should attract the entire attention. Details are read only after understanding the general concept... The drawing and text should be resolved as intensely as possible... The book should evoke a joyful feeling, direct the playful impulse to the child’s activity and the desire to learn more...” A little earlier Lebedev said: “Of course, the drawing The drawing should be understandable for children. But still, the drawing should be such that the child could enter into the artist’s work, that is, he would understand what was the backbone of the drawing and how its construction proceeded.” These principles and artistic techniques, formulated by Lebedev and developed by him in the design of children's books - which, without fear of exaggeration, can be called classical - formed the basis for the creative activity of not only Lebedev, but also a large group of his students and followers. Young Leningrad graphic artists of the twenties and thirties developed and uniquely reworked the ideas and principles of their teacher, realizing the high blossoming of Soviet illustrated books for children. Author of the article: V. Petrov.
Evgeny Schwartz
Printing yard
G Back in 1927, when work in the Children's Department of the State Publishing House got into a rut, we often went to the Printing House printing house to do the layout of a magazine or another book. In those days I was especially preoccupied, offended by close friends and my home life, but I remember these trips as if they were glowing, like cardboard boxes with a candle inside. They shine with their imaginary toy happiness. On the days of such trips I enjoyed a toy, fragile and undoubted freedom.Due to my fatal, as if spoken inactivity, I was reluctant to even embark on this easy path. I was postponing the trip until later deadline. And at Geslerovsky Lane, among the unfamiliar streets of the Petrograd side, I was suddenly struck by the feeling of liberation from the domestic and editorial harness, not God knows how heavy, but still chafing my shoulders. And I couldn’t understand why I was hiding, hiding from the holiday. I walk along an alley that reminds me of - I don’t want to guess what. It's freer that way. It’s like Ekaterinodar in my earliest childhood. I don't look closely. That's brick fence, And brick walls"Printing House". And my favorite since the Donbass times, from the “All-Union Stoker”, the charm of the printing house, the tangible, visible work, embraces me. Having submitted the material for layout, talking with the page manager and typesetters, I went to wander around the entire building of the Printing House; submitting to the same feeling of freedom. The offset has just been brought from Germany, they are starting to master it, it is on the move. I look and look, and cannot catch the repetition, the mechanical nature of the movements of his numerous levers. And suddenly, in the shine of the nickel-plated parts, in the bridges and stairs, I strongly, but briefly, just for a moment, remember something festive, experienced long ago. What? So I looked on a clear day, feeling the deck trembling, into the glass sparkling hatch engine room on the boat and...
And fear takes over me. I’m afraid to frighten away a memory full of joy, I’m afraid to lose my sense of freedom. I don’t dare to restore, to discern what I once experienced, I put it off. Then, later! And I run away.
At the entrance to the lithography, a machine thunders deafeningly, washing the lithographic stones. The heavy square trough shakes and shakes, rolling glass balls over the stones. I enter the light and spacious rooms of the lithography. Here, on my visits, I certainly meet someone from the guard of Vladimir Vasilyevich Lebedev. In those days he was in charge of the art department of Detgiz. And he kept young artists strictly. They were obliged to make their own drawings on lithographic stones and supervise the printing of their books. In those days, Vladimir Vasilyevich Lebedev was considered the best Soviet graphic artist. One artist said: “Lebedev is so ahead of the rest, he has pulled away, that it is difficult to say who is next.” He worked without fail every day, without missing a beat. In the morning the model came to him. Then he worked on book illustrations. Then he went to the editorial office, where he carefully, carefully, strictly examined the students’ illustrations. And he practiced boxing just as carefully and judiciously. Before the revolution, he was even a champion in some weight. And in the twenties, at competitions, he took seats right next to the ring, along with the judges. And at home, near his bed, he had a bag of sand hanging for training. And he trained as fervently as others pray. But, despite his good figure, he did not seem like a trained man, an athlete in shape. Probably the biggest hindrance was the full head of baldness and a somewhat flabby face with sagging skin. Thick, brushed eyebrows, and thick hair around the bald spot increased the feeling of disorder. Untidy. Unsportsmanlike. And he dressed carefully, consciously, confidently, but it bothered his eyes, and did not please him, like a well-dressed man. And then something was felt that was not quite right, as in his face. A checkered cloth cap with a visor like a French soldier's cap, a checkered short coat, some unprecedented knee-length semi-military boots with laces - no, the eye did not rest on it, but got tired. Lebedev’s talent was beyond doubt, because the spirit of God blows wherever it wants, even in demonic and devilish souls. But in this case this was out of the question. Lebedev's soul was free from both God and the devil. The Spirit of God breathed in the soul of a snob who would find any faith shameful. Except one. Like Shklovsky, like Mayakovsky, he believed that time is always right. And this is sometimes, among other things, also a sign of a dandy, a snob. He dressed according to the time... Lebedev believed in today, loved what was strong in this day, and despised, as something not accepted in good society, any weakness and failure. He sincerely loved what was strong and the people who personified this strength, admired them like a good boxer in the ring. And he recognized them and distributed them by rank with such accuracy, as if they had the corresponding diplomas or titles. He loved only one thing more than such people - things. He had a passion for all sorts of things. Especially for leather ones. A whole array of boots, shoes, boots stood under his bed. He also collected leather belts. Belts. His vast workshop did not at all resemble a collector’s room. How is it possible! But there were great things hidden in great closets. And in Kirov on time. war Lebedev shocked me with the statement that he felt sorry for the things dying in besieged Leningrad more than for the people. Things are the best a person can do. And he started an album in which he drew the treasures remaining in the Leningrad apartment. What a wonderful ladle. Pots. Shoes. Wardrobe in the hallway. Kitchen cabinet. All these things survived through his prayers; the bomb did not hit his apartment. How clear and pure such a soul must have been from remorse, hangover, and sin! How calmly, with what complete, complete pleasure Lebedev should have possessed nature, boots, suitcases, ladles, old popular prints, women, wardrobes! Meanwhile, close people complained about his femininity and capricious character. This happens to the brave strong people his kind. They love their desires no less than their own things. And they spoil themselves. They listen too much to their own whims, get tired, overstrain themselves. In those days, Lebedev often said: “I have such a property.” He spoke respectfully, even as if religiously, surprising himself as if at a miracle. “I have this property - I hate vinaigrette.” “I have this property - I don’t eat herrings.” But his disciples laughed terribly at this. This phrase was at one time used as a proverb. “I have this quality...” Yes, yes, despite his snobbish isolation and ability to keep his distance, the students knew him through and through and loved to talk about the shortcomings, about the funny sides of the teacher. Its merits were not discussed. Yes, Lebedev was a great artist, but this has been known to everyone for so long. What is there to talk about? But Lebedev’s stinginess was tirelessly discussed. And his costumes. And his novels. And his character. And if they talked about him as an artist, they preferred to talk about failures. For example, that he is not good at easel painting. Pyotr Ivanovich Sokolov, however, was by no means a student of Lebedev - he also condemned his drawings.
With a pencil you can convey the softness of down and such roughness that the roughness of wood and the roughness of stone are worth nothing. But Lebedev knows that the softness of down is more pleasant, and that’s all he uses.
Did Lebedev know or not know what his students were saying about him. Of course, I didn’t even imagine, as is usually the case. But he also spoke about his loved ones under an angry hand, or even just out of the blue, with merciless anger. Worse than an envious person. People irritated him by the very fact of their existence, embarrassed him, like roommates.
So he walked, a magnificent artist, free from faith and unbelief, walking his way, respecting power and its bearers, thoughtfully and respectfully listening to himself, being capricious and foolish.
So, in lithography I certainly met graphic artists from the guard of Vladimir Vasilyevich Lebedev,
This was the golden age of the picture book. The artist’s name was not hidden among the imprint, along with the name of the technical editor, but appeared on the cover, next to the writer’s name.
As often happens, the rise of the Lebedev group was accompanied by intolerance and a sharp rejection of the previous school. The most offensive, destructive curse was “worldly art”. Bakst caused a grimace of disgust; he simply did not know how to draw. Somov - a contemptuous grin. Golovin was a “decorator”, like all theater artists, however. Zamirailo did not understand the form, and so on, and so on. They were all epigones, stylists, writers. Literaryism was the most serious accusation for the artist. He was obliged to express himself through the means of his art. Lebedev was especially strict towards violators of this law. Even outside of the fine arts. He could not forgive Charushin for also writing stories. This means that he is not gifted enough in his field if he is drawn to the neighboring one. I understood that this requirement was healthy. Literature is destructive. for the artist. But sometimes it seemed to me that for people who illustrate books, a certain amount of literature is obligatory. Artists sometimes treated the author's text arrogantly. For example, Lebedev, illustrating Marshak’s lines saying that where fish lived, a man explodes blocks, evaded the literary plot side of these lines, depicted not an explosion, but two or three swimming fish calmly and without regard to the text. The second strict requirement that Lebedev made of his students was knowledge of the material. It was known exactly who knew and could draw horses, who the sea, who children. Tom Sawyer was released with old American illustrations. Lebedev said that they are rather bad, but they have real knowledge of the material, the environment, the time. And the third requirement was an understanding of the technical side of the matter. What cliche will they make from your drawing - tone or line? How many colors is your picture book designed for? And transfer your drawing onto the lithographic stone yourself. The author's hand should be felt. So, I walk through the lithograph, greet the artists and look with envy at their tangible, visible, distinct work. Here is Kurdov, a descendant of a Kurd who was captured during the Turkish war and exiled to the North, either to Vyatka or to Perm. He willingly breaks away from work and laughs, black, broad-chested, with a forelock on his forehead, and with the paws of a robber. Here is Vasnetsov, naive, red-faced, with bulging light eyes. It seems he lost his temper, and stayed that way. Here is Charushin, well-built and graceful, and so open, as if he is showing you his throat, saying “a-a-a”... Well, all, all wide open - and at the same time the darkest soul of all. Here is Alexey Fedorovich Pakhomov, the most mature, determined and talented of Lebedev’s students. He looks at work calmly, like a peasant, like a harvest that you will undoubtedly be able to harvest and sell if you behave carefully. And he succeeds. Here is Tambi, an expert on the sea, quiet, silent, stuttering, ruddy, and thin in those years. There are many others whom I don’t know by name, but I greet them like brothers. We all know each other, just like we did in real school. And I look with envy at their tangible, visible work, but something bothers me. It prevents you from envying to the end. I don't want to think what it is. Then, because And then, many years later, I realized that I felt in almost all young artists, despite their different characters, both talents and destinies. I wouldn't want to be in their shoes. Yes, they did their job, they did it clearly, understanding what craftsmanship is. But the guards units marched just as distinctly and unliterally, and the cavalrymen walked along the streets just as dashingly, despising civilians with all their complicated lives. Guardsmen. Although not graphs, but graphs. Aristocraticism and involvement in the highest spheres were replaced here by involvement in a higher art that was completely devoid of literary art. And security is carelessness. The older generation - Tyrsa, Lapshin, and Lebedev, no matter how much he hid it - were truly educated people. I remember how Tyrsa argued with Tynyanov, standing up for Botkin, admiring “Letters from Spain” with a real understanding of literature. They did not flaunt their knowledge, like the “World of Art” students, but fed on it as needed. And the young people sailed without any baggage, even without Lebedev’s faith in today. Faith, disbelief, knowledge - did not justify themselves. And they weren't alone in their freedom from baggage. New experience required new knowledge. Someone wrote that until now, before the revolution, Russian intellectuals built forests around missing buildings. Indeed. It was as if people saw death and life, and exploits, and betrayal for the first time, and their childhood and youth were lost in history. The time has passed with history when they learned to speak. Lebedev, Lapshin, Tyrsa understood that it was impossible to live on old knowledge, but they fed on it as needed. And the young writers, artists, musicians all laughed. No, I could not completely envy the artists at the lithographic stones. Recently, with the help of Marshak, I sort of got out on the road, felt what I believed in, where and why I was going. But why do I work so little? Why do my friends languish and wander around, as if unable to find a place for themselves? Later, later, I’ll understand this later, but now I’ll return to the typesetter who typesets “Hedgehog.” Things are going well for him. And we start talking about layout in general. In those days in Moscow, the Lefovites and their numerous students freed themselves from all typographic traditions in this area, which deeply irritated my elderly interlocutor, who knew his worth.
Since when did Moscow typesetters specify St. Petersburg typesetters? A Moscow typesetter types in the winter and goes to work on his farm in the summer, doing carpentry and gardening. It used to be said that a Moscow typesetter has a typesetting tool on his belt and a hatchet in his belt. And the St. Petersburg guy has supports on his feet and a bowler hat on his head. He doesn't care about his household!
And my interlocutor talks about the legendary exploits of a typesetter named Afinogen Maksimovich, and nicknamed Fatagen Kerosinovich. He had not been home for weeks, claiming that his wife was starving him. He bought sausages not by weight, but by fathom, and drank accordingly. But how it worked. In "New Time" there seemed to be plenty to choose from. They paid so well there that the best typesetters were hired by the printing house. But still, Suvorin especially appreciated Afinogen Maksimovich. Everything was forgiven to him. On the day of Suvorin’s anniversary, they dressed him in a frock coat and invited him to a banquet. And Fatagen Kerosinich, ha-ha, what a man, got drunk and told Suvorin the whole truth:
“Do you remember,” he says, “how I asked you for an advance, and you refused?”
Ha ha! Here's a man! But even this was forgiven him, because he was a master! We just laughed. And is there only one Fatagen Maksimovich! Everyone knew how to drink and work. Saturday was called "concert" by typesetters. They drank and paid. Sunday: "vaudeville with dressing up." Everyone drank from themselves. And Monday: “poor in spirit.” They came to the printing house with supports on their feet and a bowler hat on their heads. And now, you see, the Moscow layout has begun! Column number in the field. Font game! And who needs it? I walk and see a book displayed in the window: “One Hundred Years of the Little One.” What's happened? What little guy is a hundred years old? It turns out, the Maly Theater. The game of fonts has reached such a state that you can’t see the word “theater”. Font game! They don’t know how to work and try to come up with weirder ideas. We've finished the game! Should have shown them first! And he tells how strict Afinogen Maksimovich was when he taught him typography. How I forced myself to treat myself for my entire first paycheck. How in the morning after drinking, on the way to the printing house, a student saw his teacher at the door of the tavern, completely poor in spirit.
"Afinogen Maksimovich! Bring me a hangover!"
And he answers:
"I don't talk to ragamuffins."
Ha-ha| And I was dressed quite decently, in a three-piece. Haha. Here was a man. What if this is the secret, I think, going to the zincography department, where the clichés are kept. Work and complete freedom. He hasn't been home for weeks. I do gymnastics, quit smoking, shower myself cold water, and in order to work, this artistic freedom from responsibilities may be needed, when only one laws are recognized - the laws of craftsmanship. From Maykop I took away an intellectual-ascetic spirit, respect for naturalness, and restraint. What if there is truth in depravity? A vicious person is truthful in one area, and this determines much in his entire life. Isn't my restraint simply timidity, coldness, lack of temperament? But these thoughts violate today's toy freedom. Then, later! And I enter zincography. Silence reigns here. The clichés are ripened in an acid bath. The pungent chemical smell makes it difficult to breathe. The work here goes on invisible to the eye, the time will come - the process will be completed. Maybe it’s the same with us, I dream, going down the stairs and looking at the ready-made cliches that I take to layout. Maybe the day will come and the aversion to desk? And will that stream return that made me so happy in my early youth, when I wrote my ugly poems that looked like fossil monsters? Of course he will return. And I see and experience myself in a new capacity in a lot of detail. I am a tireless worker! I live without the eternal horror of my ugliness! I'm no longer deaf and dumb! I hear and speak! I have a point of view, not imposed, but found, organic. We're going to manual machine make reprints of the first laid out pages of the magazine. Near the cars are the craftsmen, strict and concentrated. Like doctors at a consultation, they are busy spicing up clichés. And I no longer envy their tangible, visible work - I see myself working so clearly. It’s so clear that, walking through the binding shop, I imagine with extraordinary ease that it’s my books stacked up like a mountain near the tables. And this fills me with the most cardboard toy happiness, which I cannot forget to this day. I return home on foot to live longer in my cardboard world. I'm intoxicated and kind and happy. I remember Lebedev - and accuse myself of being too demanding. A racehorse is beautiful when it runs - well, look at it from the stands. And if you call her to dinner, you will undoubtedly be disappointed. Lebedev the teacher and Lebedev the artist are magnificent. Why are you dragging him to the table and denying his right not to take vinaigrette and not eat herring? And why am I so hard on myself? What exactly is my dream job? Why did I envy graphic artists and typesetters so much? This is the kind of work I do. Just think, it’s a feat to illustrate someone else’s text, sometimes unpleasant to you, and then transfer your own embroidery, so to speak, onto stone. What are the better typesetters? Yes, they famously type and type out other people's words. This is not the kind of work we dream of. We want to tell something that, according to our favorite definition at that time, “corresponds to reality.” Some friends had a parrot that knew two words: “My joy!” He repeated these only words of his both out of grief and hunger. The cat crawls up to him, its feathers standing on end with horror, and he screams one thing: “My joy!” - His words do not correspond to reality in any way. Don't be like this unfortunate man. All this is true. But not working at full strength is shameful. And scary. Better a bad job than complete infertility. Shouldn't we start working today? Just write down today? But as soon as I begin to sort through what I’ve experienced since the morning, all the impressions, as if frightened, run away, blur, get mixed up. Attempts to convey them - timid and cautious - seem obscene and rude in the cardboard world. "Later, later!" - I order myself. After a day spent in the printing house, I start to get tired. Thoughts lose consistency and comfort. More and more often, my thoughts break off, and I don’t think about anything, I repeat fragments of poetry, as discordant and meaningless as the state of mind into which I am gradually plunging. My path lies past a small cramped market with a sign:
"Deryabkinsky market is open all day."
I hid in the shadows from hundreds of pellets,
Deryabkinsky market is open all day -
I mutter half-consciously, half-asleep.
Laziness leads me through hundreds of pictures,
It’s already getting dark, the day is ending, the market will soon be closed. The housewives enter the lattice gate.
The creaking of baskets gives aunts migraines,
The Deryabkinsky market is open all day.
And among this stream, motionless and arrogant, leaning on the fence or sitting on the ground, the disabled people of the civil or German war settled down. Their conscience is clear. All responsibilities have been removed by fate. By evening, one way or another, everyone managed to get drunk. Some philosophize passionately, others sing, no one listens to each other, and all of them, in their sorrow, are now enjoying life in the evening, have a point of view, understand everything.
Higher the boot made of tin shin,
The Deryabkinsky market is open all day.
Disabled people are happy. But women with baskets do not dream of happiness, and do not notice the swollen lucky ones. What happiness there! They are responsible for children, for the elderly left at home. For husbands. They seem to me to be the only adults here, despite their fussiness.And I'm getting scared. I'm sobering up. I don't want to sound like poetic, swollen monsters, tempting as that may be. But I don’t get along with adults either.And I get on the tram so that I can definitely start work today. Start writing. However, I'm tired today. I'll start on Monday. No, Monday is a hard day. But from the first, without fail, without fail, at all costs, I will start a new life. And I'll tell you everything.
To level the surface wooden products, reducing their thickness, as well as to create extended recesses various shapes this tool serves. Typically, a plane consists of a block with stop handles and a sharpened metal blade (cutter) fixed at an angle to the surface being processed. The plane is a human invention that has come down to us from ancient times. Planes found in Pompeii dating back to the 1st century are known. Although mentions of this instrument are even earlier. Homer's Odysseus was good at this instrument, and yet the events took place in the 12th century BC. e.
The plane began to be widely used only in the 15th–16th centuries. Tsar Peter I brought it to Russia, being a great lover of carpentry. Before this, they were controlled with an ax and a plow - an iron knife with two handles.
Good tools have always been expensive. For example, in 1901, the price of an ordinary plane from a French company in Russia reached two rubles, which was comparable to the cost of a cow.
Depending on how the surface of the wood needs to be processed, various modifications of the plane are used. These are jointer, and tsinubel, and sherhebel, and folded gebel, and zenzubel, and tongue and groove, humpback, mole cricket... They differ in size, shape of the cutter and block (sole). For example, tsinubel does not plane the surface, but ruffles it, raises the pile and serves to prepare the surface before gluing. He does not have a cutter, but a piece of iron with jagged edges that leave the necessary grooves.
Currently, electric planers are used in industry to perform the same function. Their productivity is much higher.
But the works of old master woodworkers only gain in beauty over the years, becoming timeless. Handwork can not injure the fibers, but carefully, cutting off excess, reveals structure and beauty. The plane, becoming an extension of the hand of a true master, is able to remove the finest shavings, revealing the character of the tree. And the thinner and more transparent the chips, the brighter and more beautiful the wood texture becomes.
PUZZLES
A new boat is sailing along a wooden river,
Its pine smoke curls into ringlets.
(Plane)
At the horse's, at the little hunchback's
Wooden sides.
When you hold it in your hand,
He will slide along the board.
(Plane)
I'm running on my bald head -
I cut the curls from my bald head.
