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Soviet automatic station "Luna"
"Luna-1"- the world's first AMS, launched in the region of the Moon on January 2, 1959. Having passed near the Moon at a distance of 5-6 thousand km from its surface, on January 4, 1959, AMS left the sphere of Earth's gravity and turned into the first artificial planet of the Solar System with parameters: perihelion 146.4 million km and aphelion 197.2 million km. The final mass of the last (3rd) stage of the launch vehicle (LV) with AMS "Luna-1" is 1472 kg. The mass of the container "Luna-1" with equipment is 361.3 kg. The AMS housed radio equipment, a telemetry system, a set of instruments and other equipment. The instruments are designed to study the intensity and composition of cosmic rays, the gaseous component of interplanetary matter, meteor particles, solar corpuscular radiation, and the interplanetary magnetic field. At the last stage of the rocket, equipment was installed for the formation of a sodium cloud - an artificial comet. On January 3, a visually observable golden-orange sodium cloud was formed at a distance of 113,000 km from Earth. During the flight of "Luna-1" the second cosmic velocity was achieved for the first time. For the first time, strong flows of ionized plasma have been registered in interplanetary space. In the world press, AMS "Luna-1" was called "Dream".
"Luna-2" September 12, 1959 made the world's first flight to another celestial body. On September 14, 1959, the Luna-2 AMS and the last stage of the launch vehicle reached the surface of the Moon (west of the Sea of Clarity, near the craters Aristillus, Archimedes and Autolycus) and delivered pennants depicting the State Emblem of the USSR. The final mass of the AMS with the last stage of the launch vehicle is 1511 kg with the mass of the container, as well as scientific and measuring equipment, 390.2 kg. An analysis of the scientific information obtained by Luna-2 showed that the Moon practically does not have its own magnetic field and radiation belt.
Luna-2
"Luna-3" launched on October 4, 1959. The final mass of the last stage of the launch vehicle with AMS "Luna-3" is 1553 kg, while the mass of scientific and measuring equipment with power sources is 435 kg. The equipment included systems: radio engineering, telemetry, phototelevision, orientation relative to the Sun and the Moon, power supply with solar batteries, thermal control, as well as a complex of scientific equipment. Moving along a trajectory around the Moon, the AMS passed at a distance of 6200 km from its surface. October 7, 1959 photographed from the Luna-3 back side Moon. Cameras with long- and short-focus lenses photographed almost half of the surface of the lunar ball, one third of which was in the marginal zone of the side visible from the Earth, and two thirds - on the invisible side. After processing the film on board, the resulting images were transmitted by a photo-television system to Earth when the station was 40,000 km away from it. The Luna-3 flight was the first experience of studying another celestial body with the transmission of its image from a spacecraft. After flying around the Moon, AMS switched to an elongated, elliptical satellite orbit with an apogee altitude of 480,000 km. Having made 11 revolutions in orbit, it entered the earth's atmosphere and ceased to exist.
Luna-3
"Luna-4" - "Luna-8"- AMS, launched in 1963-65 for further exploration of the Moon and working out a soft landing on it of a container with scientific equipment. Experimental testing of the entire complex of systems providing soft landing, including systems for celestial orientation, control of onboard radio equipment, radio monitoring of the flight path and autonomous control devices. The mass of AMS after separation from the upper stage of the launch vehicle is 1422-1552 kg.
Luna-4
"Luna-9"- AMS, for the first time in the world, carried out a soft landing on the Moon and transmission of an image of its surface to Earth. Launched on January 31, 1966 by a 4-stage launch vehicle using a satellite reference orbit. The automatic lunar station landed on February 3, 1966 in the area of the Ocean of Storms, west of the craters Reiner and Mariy, at a point with coordinates 64° 22" W and 7° 08" N. sh. Panoramas of the lunar landscape (at different angles of the Sun above the horizon) were transmitted to Earth. 7 radio communication sessions (lasting more than 8 hours) were conducted to transmit scientific information. The AMS operated on the Moon for 75 hours. Luna-9 consists of an AMS designed to operate on the lunar surface, a compartment with control equipment, and a propulsion system for trajectory correction and deceleration before landing. The total mass of "Luna-9" after launching on the flight path to the Moon and separation from the upper stage of the launch vehicle is 1583 kg. The mass of AMS after landing on the moon is 100 kg. In its hermetic case are placed: television equipment, radio communication equipment, program-time device, scientific equipment, thermal control system, power supplies. Images of the lunar surface transmitted by Luna 9, and successful landing were of decisive importance for further flights to the moon.
Luna-9
"Luna-10"- the first artificial satellite of the moon (ASL). Launched on March 31, 1966. The mass of the AMS on the flight route to the Moon is 1582 kg, the mass of the ASL, separated on April 3 after the transition to a selenocentric orbit, is 240 kg. Orbital parameters: periselenium 350 km, apopulation 1017 km, orbital period 2 h 58 min 15 sec, inclination of the lunar equator plane 71° 54". information was obtained on the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Moon, the Earth's magnetic plume, into which the Moon and ASL more than once fell, as well as indirect data on the chemical composition and radioactivity of surface lunar rocks. during the 23rd Congress of the CPSU.For the creation and launch of the Luna-9 and Luna-10 AMS, the International Aviation Federation (FAI) awarded Soviet scientists, designers and workers with an honorary diploma.
Luna-10
"Luna-11"- second ISL; launched on August 24, 1966. Mass of AMS 1640 kg. On August 27, Luna-11 was transferred to a circumlunar orbit with the following parameters: periselenium 160 km, apopulation 1200 km, inclination 27°, orbital period 2 h 58 min. The ISL made 277 turns, having worked for 38 days. Scientific instruments continued the study of the Moon and circumlunar space, begun by the Luna-10 ISL. 137 radio communication sessions were carried out.
Luna-11
"Luna-12"- the third Soviet ISL; launched on October 22, 1966. Orbital parameters: migrations about 100 km, migrations 1740 km. AMS mass in ISL orbit is 1148 kg. Luna-12 was active for 85 days. On board the ISL, in addition to scientific equipment, there was a high-resolution photo-television system (1100 lines); with its help, large-scale images of sections of the lunar surface in the region of the Sea of Rains, the crater Aristarchus and others (craters up to 15-20 m in size, and individual objects up to 5 m in size) were obtained and transmitted to Earth. The station operated until January 19, 1967. 302 radio sessions were conducted. On the 602nd orbit, after the flight program was completed, radio contact with the station was interrupted.
Luna-12
"Luna-13"- the second AMS to make a soft landing on the moon. It was launched on December 21, 1966. On December 24, it landed in the area of the Ocean of Storms at a point with selenographic coordinates 62° 03" W and 18° 52" N. sh. The mass of AMS after landing on the moon is 112 kg. Using a mechanical soil meter, a dynamograph and a radiation densitometer, data on the physical mechanical properties ah the surface layer of the lunar soil. Gas-discharge counters that registered cosmic corpuscular radiation made it possible to determine the reflectivity of the lunar surface for cosmic rays. 5 large panoramas of the lunar landscape were transmitted to Earth at different heights of the Sun above the horizon.
Luna-13
"Luna-14"- the fourth Soviet ISL. Launched on April 7, 1968. Orbital parameters: 160 km pervillage, 870 km pervillage. The ratio of the masses of the Earth and the Moon was refined; the gravitational field of the Moon and its shape were studied by the method of systematic long-term observations of changes in the parameters of the orbit; the conditions for the passage and stability of radio signals transmitted from the Earth to the ASL and back at various positions relative to the Moon, in particular, when passing over the lunar disk, were studied; cosmic rays and fluxes of charged particles coming from the Sun were measured. Additional information has been obtained to construct an accurate theory of the motion of the Moon.
"Luna-15" launched July 13, 1969, three days before the launch of Apollo 11. The purpose of this station was to take samples of the lunar soil. Entered lunar orbit at the same time as Apollo 11. If successful, our stations could take soil samples and for the first time make a start from the Moon and return to Earth before the Americans. Yu.I. Mukhin’s book “Anti-Apollo: the US lunar scam” says: “although the probability of a collision was much lower than in the sky over Lake Constance, the Americans asked the USSR Academy of Sciences about the parameters of the orbit of our AMS, They were informed. For some reason, the AMS hung in orbit for a long time. Then it made a hard landing on the regolith. The Americans won the match. How? What do these days of Luna-15 circling around the Moon mean: problems that arose on board or ... negotiations of some authorities? Did our AMC collapse on its own, or was it helped to do it? Only Luna-16 was able to take soil samples.
Luna-15
"Luna-16"- AMS, which made the Earth-Moon-Earth flight for the first time and delivered samples of lunar soil. Launched on September 12, 1970. On September 17, it entered a selenocentric circular orbit with a distance of 110 km from the lunar surface, an inclination of 70 °, an orbital period of 1 hour 59 minutes. Subsequently, the complex problem of forming a pre-landing orbit with a low perilune was solved. A soft landing was made on September 20, 1970 in the area of the Sea of Plenty at a point with coordinates 56 ° 18 "E and 0 ° 41" S. sh. The soil intake device provided drilling and soil sampling. The Luna-Earth rocket was launched from the Moon on September 21, 1970, on command from the Earth. On September 24, the return vehicle was separated from the instrument compartment and landed in the calculated area. Luna-16 consists of a landing stage with a soil intake device and a Luna-Earth space rocket with a return vehicle. The mass of the AMS during landing on the surface of the moon is 1880 kg. The landing stage is an independent multi-purpose rocket block with a liquid-propellant rocket engine, a system of tanks with propellant components, instrument compartments and shock-absorbing supports for landing on the lunar surface.
Luna-16
"Luna-17"- AMS, which delivered the first automatic mobile scientific laboratory "Lunokhod-1" to the Moon. Launch of "Luna-17" - November 10, 1970, November 17 - soft landing on the Moon in the area of the Sea of Rains, at a point with coordinates 35 ° W. and 38°17" N. w.
During the development and creation of the lunar rover, Soviet scientists and designers faced the need to solve a complex of complex problems. It was necessary to create a completely new type of machine capable of long time function in unusual conditions of open space on the surface of another celestial body. Main tasks: creation of an optimal propulsion unit with high cross-country ability at low weight and energy consumption, ensuring reliable operation and traffic safety; systems remote control the movement of the lunar rover; providing the necessary thermal regime with the help of a thermal control system that maintains the temperature of the gas in the instrument compartments, structural elements and equipment located inside the sealed compartments and outside them (in open space during periods lunar days and nights) within the specified limits; selection of power sources, materials for structural elements; development of lubricants and lubrication systems for vacuum conditions and more.
Scientific equipment L. s. A. was supposed to ensure the study of topographic and selenium-morphological features of the area; determination of the chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties of the soil; study of the radiation situation on the route of the flight to the Moon, in the circumlunar space and on the surface of the Moon; x-ray space radiation; experiments on laser location of the moon. First L. s. A. - the Soviet "Lunokhod-1" (Fig. 1), designed to conduct a large complex of scientific research on the surface of the Moon, was delivered to the Moon by the automatic interplanetary station "Luna-17" (see Error! Reference source not found.), worked on it surface from November 17, 1970 to October 4, 1971 and passed 10540 m. Lunokhod-1 consists of 2 parts: an instrument compartment and a wheeled chassis. The mass of "Lunokhod-1" is 756 kg. The sealed instrument compartment has the shape of a truncated cone. Its body is made of magnesium alloys, providing sufficient strength and lightness. The upper part of the compartment body is used as a radiator-cooler in the thermal control system and is closed with a lid. During the moonlit night, the cover closes the radiator and prevents heat from radiating from the compartment. During the lunar day, the lid is open and the elements solar battery located on her inside, provide recharging of batteries that supply on-board equipment with electricity.
The instrument compartment contains thermal control systems, power supply systems, receiving and transmitting devices of the radio complex, remote control system devices and electronic converters of scientific equipment. In the front part there are: windows of television cameras, an electric drive of a mobile highly directional antenna, which serves to transmit television images of the lunar surface to Earth; a low-directional antenna that provides reception of radio commands and transmission of telemetry information, scientific instruments and an optical corner reflector made in France. On the left and right sides are installed: 2 panoramic telephoto cameras (in each pair, one of the cameras is structurally combined with a local vertical determinant), 4 whip antennas for receiving radio commands from the Earth in a different frequency range. An isotopic source of thermal energy is used to heat the gas circulating inside the apparatus. Next to it is a device for determining the physical and mechanical properties of the lunar soil.
Sharp temperature changes during the change of day and night on the surface of the moon, as well as a big difference temperatures between the parts of the apparatus, located in the sun and in the shade, necessitated the development of a special thermal control system. At low temperatures during the moonlit night, to heat the instrument compartment, the circulation of the heat-carrier gas through the cooling circuit is automatically stopped and the gas is directed to the heating circuit.
The power supply system of the lunar rover consists of solar and chemical buffer batteries, as well as instruments automatic control. The solar battery drive is controlled from the Earth; while the cover can be installed at any angle between zero and 180°, necessary for maximum use of solar energy.
The onboard radio complex ensures the reception of commands from the Control Center and the transmission of information from the spacecraft to the Earth. A number of systems of the radio complex are used not only when working on the surface of the Moon, but also during the flight from the Earth. Two television systems L. s. A. serve to solve independent problems. The low-frame television system is designed to transmit to Earth television images of the terrain necessary for the crew controlling the movement of the lunar rover from Earth. The possibility and expediency of using such a system, which is characterized by a lower image transmission rate compared to the broadcast television standard, was dictated by specific lunar conditions. The main one is the slow change of the landscape during the movement of the lunar rover. The second television system is used to obtain a panoramic image of the surrounding area and to shoot sections of the starry sky, the Sun and the Earth for the purpose of astroorientation. The system consists of 4 panoramic telephoto cameras.
The self-propelled chassis provides a solution to a fundamentally new task of astronautics - the movement of an automatic laboratory on the surface of the moon. It is designed in such a way that the lunar rover has a high cross-country ability and reliable operation for a long time with a minimum own weight and power consumption. The landing gear provides the movement of the lunar rover forward (with 2 speeds) and backward, turns on the spot and in motion. It consists of a running gear, an automation unit, a traffic safety system, a device and a set of sensors for determining the mechanical properties of the soil and evaluating the passability of the chassis. The turn is achieved due to different speeds of rotation of the wheels of the right and left sides and a change in the direction of their rotation. Braking is carried out by switching the chassis traction motors into the electrodynamic braking mode. To keep the lunar rover on slopes and to stop it completely, disc brakes with electromagnetic control are activated. The automation unit controls the movement of the lunar rover by radio commands from the Earth, measures and controls the main parameters of the self-propelled chassis and automatic operation instruments for studying the mechanical properties of lunar soil. The traffic safety system provides an automatic stop at the limit angles of roll and trim and overloads of the electric motors of the wheels.
The device for determining the mechanical properties of the lunar soil allows you to quickly obtain information about the ground conditions of motion. The distance traveled is determined by the number of revolutions of the drive wheels. To take into account their slippage, an amendment is made, determined with the help of a freely rolling ninth wheel, which is lowered to the ground by a special drive and rises to its original position. The spacecraft is controlled from the Center for Deep Space Communications by a crew consisting of a commander, a driver, a navigator, an operator, and a flight engineer.
The driving mode is selected as a result of evaluating television information and telemetric data on-line about the magnitude of the roll, the trim of the distance traveled, the state and modes of operation of the wheel drives. Under the conditions of space vacuum, radiation, significant temperature fluctuations and difficult terrain along the route, all systems and scientific instruments of the lunar rover functioned normally, ensuring the implementation of both the main and additional programs of scientific research of the Moon and outer space, as well as engineering and design tests.
Luna-17
"Lunokhod-1" examined the lunar surface in detail over an area of 80,000 m2. For this, more than 200 panoramas and over 20,000 surface images were obtained using television systems. At more than 500 points along the route, the physical and mechanical properties of the surface layer of the soil were studied, and at 25 points, an analysis of its chemical composition was carried out. The cessation of the active operation of Lunokhod-1 was caused by the depletion of the resources of its isotopic heat source. At the end of the work, it was placed on an almost horizontal platform in a position in which a corner reflector ensured many years of laser ranging from the Earth.
"Lunokhod-1"
"Luna-18" It was launched on September 2, 1971. In orbit, the station carried out maneuvers in order to work out methods of automatic circumlunar navigation and landing on the Moon. Luna 18 completed 54 orbits. 85 radio communication sessions were carried out (checking the operation of systems, measuring the parameters of the trajectory of movement). On September 11, the braking propulsion system was turned on, the station deorbited and reached the Moon in the mainland surrounding the Sea of Plenty. The landing area was chosen in a mountainous area of great scientific interest. As the measurements showed, the landing of the station in these difficult topographic conditions turned out to be unfavorable.
"Luna-19"- the sixth Soviet ISL; launched on September 28, 1971. On October 3, the station entered a selenocentric circular orbit with the following parameters: height above the surface of the Moon 140 km, inclination 40° 35", orbital period 2 h 01 min 45 sec. On November 26 and 28, the station was transferred to a new orbit. systematic long-term observations of the evolution of its orbit in order to obtain the necessary information to refine the gravitational field of the Moon.The characteristics of the interplanetary magnetic field in the vicinity of the Moon were continuously measured.Photographs of the lunar surface were transmitted to Earth.
"Luna-19"
"Luna-20" launched on February 14, 1972. On February 18, as a result of deceleration, it was transferred to a circular selenocentric orbit with parameters: altitude 100 km, inclination 65°, orbital period 1 h 58 min. On February 21, it made a soft landing on the surface of the Moon for the first time in the mountainous continental region between the Sea of Plenty and the Sea of Crises, at a point with selenographic coordinates 56 ° 33 "E and 3 ° 32" N. sh. Luna-20 is similar in design to Luna-16. The soil sampling mechanism drilled the lunar soil and took samples, which were placed in the container of the return vehicle and sealed. On February 23, a space rocket with a return vehicle was launched from the Moon. On February 25, the Luna-20 AMS reentry vehicle landed in the estimated area of the USSR territory. Samples of lunar soil were delivered to Earth, taken for the first time in the inaccessible continental region of the Moon.
"Luna-21" delivered to the surface of the moon "Lunokhod-2". The launch was carried out on January 8, 1973. Luna 21 made a soft landing on the Moon on the eastern edge of the Sea of Clarity, inside the Lemonnier crater, at a point with coordinates 30 ° 27 "E and 25 ° 51" N. sh. January 16 from the landing stage "Luna-21" went down the ladder "Lunokhod-2".
"Luna-21"
On January 16, 1973, Lunokhod-2 was delivered to the region of the eastern outskirts of the Sea of Clarity (the ancient crater Lemonnier) with the help of the Luna-21 automatic station. The choice of the indicated landing area was dictated by the expediency of obtaining new data from the complex junction zone of the sea and the mainland (and also, according to some researchers, in order to verify the authenticity of the American landing on the moon). Improvement in the design of on-board systems, as well as the installation of additional instruments and the expansion of the capabilities of the equipment, made it possible to significantly increase maneuverability and carry out a large amount of scientific research. For 5 lunar days in conditions of difficult terrain, Lunokhod-2 covered a distance of 37 km.
"Lunokhod-2"
"Luna-22" It was launched on May 29, 1974 and entered lunar orbit on June 9. It performed the functions of an artificial satellite of the Moon, research of the circumlunar space (including the meteorite environment).
"Luna-23" It was launched on October 28, 1974 and made a soft landing on the Moon on November 6. Probably, its launch was timed to the next anniversary of the Great October Revolution. The tasks of the station included the capture and study of lunar soil, however, the landing took place in an area with unfavorable terrain, due to which the soil sampling device broke down. On November 6-9, the studies were carried out according to a reduced program.
"Luna-24" was launched on August 9, 1976 and landed on August 18 in the area of the Sea of Crisis. The task of the station was to take "marine" lunar soil (despite the fact that "Luna-16" took soil on the border of the sea and the mainland, and "Luna-20" - on the mainland region). The take-off module with lunar soil was launched from the Moon on August 19, and on August 22 the capsule with soil reached the Earth.
"Luna-24"
The program was compiled by the Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences on behalf of Roscosmos in 2014. IKI proposes to use the Moon as a scientific testing ground for large-scale astronomical and geophysical research. It is proposed to create on the Moon an optical observatory and an automatic radio telescope-interferometer, consisting of separate receivers distributed over the surface of the Moon. Despite the fact that the program was not officially published, its main provisions were undoubtedly taken into account when developing the Federal Space Program for 2016-2025.
The program of exploration and exploration of the Moon is divided into stages, united by a common strategic goal and differing in the methods of work on the Moon. In total, four stages of work on the Moon were singled out, although the experts themselves speak of three, since the latter is not considered in their program.
First stage: 2016-2028
Until 2028, it is planned to study the Moon by automatic stations, to select a site for expanding the presence of man. It is already known that it will be at the south pole, however, the exact location will be chosen only after the automatic missions provide all the information about the resources needed to supply the future base, including energy (solar illumination), the presence of ice, etc.
You can read more about all the spacecraft that are planned to be sent to the Moon at the first stage in the subsections of this page. In addition, by 2025, it is planned to begin draft design of new generation automatic research stations that will be able to start studying the Moon in the second half of the next decade and after 2030.
Scientific tasks
- study of the composition of matter and physical processes at the lunar poles- study of the processes of interaction of space plasma with the surface and the properties of the exosphere at the lunar poles
- study internal structure Moon by methods of global seismometry
- study of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays
Second stage: 2028-2030
The second stage is transitional. The developers of the program expect that by this time the country will have a super-heavy-class launch vehicle with a payload capacity of about 90 tons (in low Earth orbit). For these years, it is planned to work out operations for landing a manned expedition to the moon. Cosmonauts are supposed to fly into lunar orbit on the new PTK NP spacecraft, lunar dockings of the spacecraft with fuel modules and a reusable one with a take-off and landing vehicle. The latter will have to pick up samples of ice-containing soil from the surface of the Moon several times, which astronauts can deliver to Earth. The program for working out operations also includes the refueling of the take-off and landing module in lunar orbit.
Third stage: 2030-2040
During this period, a "lunar test site" with the first infrastructure elements should not be created. Manned flights are expected only in the form of short-term visiting expeditions. The purpose of the cosmonauts will be the maintenance of technology, machines and scientific equipment.
Fourth stage: beyond the planning horizon
After 2040, a permanently inhabited lunar base with elements of an astronomical observatory should be built on the basis of the lunar test site. Base workers will be engaged in Earth monitoring, experiments on the use of lunar resources, development of new space technology necessary for expeditions into deep space.
Image copyright RIA Novosti Image caption Exploration of the moon is an attractive topic for politicians, but there is no money for this in the budget yet
Russia is developing a project for a lunar habitable base. It is not part of the state program; it is prepared by the Central Research Institute of Mechanical Engineering.
There is little information about the appearance of the lunar station - representatives of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise TsNIIMash told in an interview with several Russian publications that at first it will be designed for two to four people, in the future - for 10-12.
The technical parameters, in particular, the source of energy and the location, have not yet been finally determined, although it is known that the possibility of placing it on the South Pole of the Moon is being considered.
The idea of building a station on the moon has been discussed at the government level for a long time, at least this has been talked about a lot in recent years by Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin and other government officials.
However, what sounds good in the speeches of politicians is quite difficult to put into practice. There is no money for such an ambitious project in Russia, and experts believe that there is no reason to seriously expect that it will be implemented in the coming decades.
Not to the moon
How much a lunar program can cost is hard to say for sure. As stated, presenting the federal space program, the head of Roskosmos Igor Komarov, necessary for such a program, can be equal to the ten-year space budget of Russia. The development of the rocket itself alone would cost $10 billion, and a single launch would cost a billion dollars.
The American Apollo program, whose goal was to put astronauts on the moon in the late 1960s and early 1970s, cost $200 billion in today's dollars. And this is only to land 12 people on the surface of the Earth's satellite - that is, to implement only the first stage of the program for its development.
In Roskosmos, which is undergoing a period of deep reform and which Last year it was necessary with great difficulty to optimize the federal space program for a more than halved budget, they are skeptical about the exploration of the moon.
Direct preparation for the flight and landing of a man on the moon (not even for the construction of a base) with the reduction of the FKP was moved beyond the program, which is valid until 2025.
Image copyright getty Image caption The American Apollo program cost $200 billion today.Over the past months, the plan has changed several times, and even the adopted program was subsequently adjusted - first in the part devoted to the development of the Vostochny cosmodrome, where there was no plan to build a launch pad for a super-heavy rocket.
In May, these plans were revised. It was announced that a third table for a super-heavy rocket would be built on Vostochny, which, however, will only begin to be created in the next 10 years. It is not known when this site will be built.
The head of the Space Policy Institute, Ivan Moiseev, in an interview with the BBC Russian Service, said that he considers such decisions to be political. "This goes beyond the horizon of the [FKP] program, and when it comes to the implementation of such political decisions, it turns out that there is not enough money for this," he said.
As the head of Roscosmos, Igor Komarov, said earlier, it is too expensive to create a superheavy carrier only for the lunar program, and there will be no commercial load for it in astronautics.
"Under the existing agreements, which I hope will be maintained, on the use of outer space and the limitation of weapons, there will be no need for payloads, including for military purposes," he said in March.
By the whole world
The station on the moon is not only an occasion for high-profile political statements, it also has a practical meaning.
Astronautics around the world is striving to explore the planets of the solar system, and Mars will probably be the first of them.
The moon in such a situation could become a kind of springboard in the literal and figurative sense. Firstly, you can build a base on it to send ships to other planets, and secondly, during flights to the Earth's satellite, you can test technologies for such expeditions.
In addition, scientists say that telescopes can be built on the moon to study deep space and implement other scientific programs.
The current project of TsNIIMash is by no means the first and not the only one. Lunar station project, for example, DLR in Cologne.
Igor Komarov, presenting the federal space program to journalists in March, said that large space projects should be developed in cooperation with other countries.
Roscosmos and the European Space Agency are already preparing a series of launches of unmanned vehicles that will explore the South Pole of the Moon in order to study the place where, according to experts,.
However, according to Ivan Moiseev, "between an automatic interplanetary station of any type and a base there is a huge distance of decades and many tens of billions of dollars," and these preparatory flights do not mean that things will come to colonization.
Image copyright RIA Novosti Image caption The USSR had extensive experience in building super-heavy rockets, but the lunar N-1 never took off, and Energia's super-carrying capacity was never useful in the national economyIn company with NASA
According to Moiseev, today the only country capable of implementing the moon colonization program alone is the United States, and the issue of Russia's participation in this program will have to be resolved with the future American president.
According to the expert, this is not only a political issue. “There is a whole range of issues here, including politics, economics, and technology. It will not work to consider prospects for only one of these issues,” he believes.
However, as Scott Pace, director of the American Space Policy Institute in Washington, told the BBC last February, NASA is now pursuing a policy of space exploration, relying mainly on own forces(Which he thinks is wrong.)
"When NASA announced that it was going to send a manned expedition to Mars, many foreign space agencies made it clear that they were too tough to participate in such a program. In a strategic sense, the United States chose the direction of research, excluding the possibility of international cooperation - the most important resource in the modern world" , - he said.
distant future
The task of building a lunar base, according to many experts (), is not as urgent as creating, for example, a large satellite orbital constellation.
But other experts are convinced that large and ambitious tasks can be a good incentive for the development of the space industry.
“We have a certain development-related stagnation in world astronautics, we have largely stopped at the milestone that humanity reached 40 years ago. From this point of view, engaging in lunar programs or Martian ones is better than upgrading rockets or space ships developed in the 60s and 70s. But lunar projects have not yet been substantiated in any way. The state will act as an investor in these projects, and it must understand why and in what it invests," a corresponding member of the Russian Academy said in an interview with Kommersant cosmonautics Andrey Ionin.
An expert in the field of astronautics Vadim Lukashevich said in an interview with the BBC that it is impossible to dream of banning TsNIIMash engineers, they will develop similar projects of lunar stations on their own initiative, but it is difficult to expect that they will come to fruition. Such projects, according to him, are created "on the table."
"TsNIIMash should have some developments. So that if in five years the government says that it wants to raise astronautics, that it has money, and what does TsNIIMash have interesting? Then they take it off the shelf - here, here and here," - he says.
It is no secret that the exploration of the Moon and the creation of a habitable base on it is one of the priorities of Russian cosmonautics. However, to implement such a large-scale project, it is not enough to organize a one-time flight, but it is necessary to build an infrastructure that would allow regular flights to the Moon and from it to Earth. To do this, in addition to creating a new spacecraft and a super-heavy launch vehicle, it is necessary to create bases in space, which are orbital stations. One of them may appear in Earth orbit as early as 2017-2020 and will be developed in subsequent years by building up modules, including those for launching to the Moon.
It is assumed that by 2024 the station will be equipped with power and transformable modules designed to work with lunar missions. However, this is only part of the lunar infrastructure. The next important step is lunar orbital station, the creation of which is included in the Russian space program. Starting from 2020, Roscosmos will consider technical proposals for the station, and in 2025, draft documentation for its modules should be approved. At the same time, computers and scientific equipment for the lunar orbital station will begin to be developed as early as 2022, in order to switch to ground testing from 2024. The composition of the lunar station should include several modules: energy, laboratory, as well as a hub - for docking spacecraft.
Speaking about the need for such a station in the orbit of the Moon, it should be noted that it is possible to fly from the Moon to Earth only once every 14 days, when their orbital planes coincide. However, circumstances may require an urgent departure, in which case the station will be simply vital. In addition, it will be able to solve a whole range of tasks of a different nature, ranging from communications to supply issues. According to a number of experts, the most rational option would be to place the lunar orbital station at the Lagrange point, located 60,000 km from the Moon. At this point, the forces of attraction of the Earth and the Moon are mutually balanced, and from this place it will be possible to launch to the Moon or Mars with minimal energy costs.
The scheme of the flight to the moon will probably look like this. The booster launches spaceship into orbit, after which it will be received by the Russian space station, located in earth orbit. There it will be prepared for further flight, and if necessary (if the mass of the ship must be increased), the ship will be assembled here from several modules launched in several launches. Having started, the ship will overcome the distance to the Russian lunar orbital station and dock to it, after which it can remain in orbit, and the descent vehicle will fly to the Moon.
It is no secret that the exploration of the Moon and the creation of a habitable base on it is one of the priorities of Russian cosmonautics. However, to implement such a large-scale project, it is not enough to organize a one-time flight, but it is necessary to build an infrastructure that would allow regular flights to the Moon and from it to Earth. To do this, in addition to creating a new spacecraft and a super-heavy launch vehicle, it is necessary to create bases in space, which are orbital stations. One of them may appear in Earth orbit as early as 2017-2020 and will be developed in subsequent years by building up modules, including those for launching to the Moon.
It is assumed that by 2024 the station will be equipped with power and transformable modules designed to work with lunar missions. However, this is only part of the lunar infrastructure. The next important step is the lunar orbital station, the creation of which is included in the Russian space program. Starting from 2020, Roscosmos will consider technical proposals for the station, and in 2025, draft documentation for its modules should be approved. At the same time, computers and scientific equipment for the lunar orbital station will begin to be developed as early as 2022, in order to switch to ground testing from 2024. The composition of the lunar station should include several modules: energy, laboratory, as well as a hub - for docking spacecraft.
Speaking about the need for such a station in the orbit of the Moon, it should be noted that it is possible to fly from the Moon to Earth only once every 14 days, when their orbital planes coincide. However, circumstances may require an urgent departure, in which case the station will be simply vital. In addition, it will be able to solve a whole range of tasks of a different nature, ranging from communications to supply issues. According to a number of experts, the most rational option would be to place the lunar orbital station at the Lagrange point, located 60,000 km from the Moon. At this point, the forces of attraction of the Earth and the Moon are mutually balanced, and from this place it will be possible to launch to the Moon or Mars with minimal energy costs.
The scheme of the flight to the moon will probably look like this. The booster launches the spacecraft into orbit, after which it will be received by the Russian space station. in earth orbit. There it will be prepared for further flight, and if necessary, the ship will be assembled here from several modules launched in several launches. Having started, the ship will overcome the distance to the Russian lunar orbital station and dock to it, after which it can remain in orbit, and the descent vehicle will fly to the Moon.
On the feasibility of creating a lunar orbital station
According to a number of experts, both in Russia and abroad, it seems most expedient to first deploy a lunar orbital station in circumlunar orbit, the main purpose of which over time would become the role of a transfer station on the way from the Earth to the lunar base. Moreover, it may allow for more early stages achieve the reusability of vehicles on the route between the orbits of the Earth and the Moon.
Naturally, programs of experiments on remote sensing of the Moon, monitoring of the interplanetary medium, including cosmic rays of solar, galactic and extragalactic origin, and determining the consequences of their long-term impact on humans, plants and animals can also be carried out on board the lunar orbital station.
In technical terms, the creation of a lunar orbital station is possible at the current level of development of domestic space technology. However, there is still no great need for a lunar orbital station at the first stages of lunar exploration, and the implementation of manned expeditions and the delivery of cargoes are quite possible without its presence, which was clearly demonstrated by the expeditions to the Moon under the Apollo program. And even vice versa, the need to dock with this station imposes additional ballistic restrictions on the moments of launch to the Moon. Also, at the first stages of the exploration of the Moon, it is hardly advisable to use reusable spacecraft, since the use of reusable vehicles before the start industrial production rocket fuel on the Moon will increase the mass of cargo delivered from the Earth and complicate the entire transport space system as a whole.
The creation of a lunar orbital station will require a significant amount of work not only to launch the station modules into the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon, but also to operate it. Therefore, the creation and operation of an orbital station is expedient only after the start of industrial production of rocket fuel on the Moon and serial use reusable vehicles. In this case, the main purpose of such a station may be the storage of rocket fuel and the refueling of transport ships with it.
Lunar orbital station
The heads of space agencies agreed to create an international lunar visited platform, which could be the first step towards deep space exploration. A discussion of the potential appearance of the platform and the requirements for its elements and used interfaces has begun.
Proposals for the future program for the creation and operation of the station will be presented to the heads of partner agencies in the ISS program in the first half of 2017.
The lunar exploration program is the strategic goal of the Russian manned cosmonautics. Astronauts are scheduled to land on the surface of the Moon in the 2030s, followed by the foundation of a lunar base. The lunar base is being designed by RSC Energia and TsNIIMash.
Sources: informatik-m.ru, universal_ru_de.academic.ru, unnatural.ru, rubforum.ru, universal_ru_en.academic.ru
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