Strict Standards: Declaration of Doku_Renderer_metadata::table_open() should be compatible with Doku_Renderer::table_open($maxcols = NULL, $numrows = NULL, $pos = NULL) in on line 24

Strict Standards: Declaration of Doku_Renderer_metadata::table_close() should be compatible with Doku_Renderer::table_close($pos = NULL) in /var/www/site/wiki/inc/parser/metadata.php on line 24

caddis

Fishermen call caddisflies the larvae of numerous butterflies that live in the floodplains of rivers and lakes, according to the "fishing" literature. But let's be clear.

The larvae attributed to butterflies, Lepidoptera, Glossata (the third order of insects), are in fact related to the Neuroptera (fifth order of insects). It is worth saying a little more about this. most interesting detachment insects, at least with quotes from Bram. So, according to Bram, "reticopteran are those insects that withstand complete metamorphosis, have biting mouthparts, a free prothorax, and uniform leathery fore and hindwings." Bram notes that it is difficult to distinguish representatives of this small order not only from each other, but also from representatives of the order Orthoptera (sixth order, Gymnognatha, Orthoptera).

Of particular interest to us are individuals of the family of midges and broomsticks (Phryganeodea). The wings of these insects are covered with hairs, scales or simply reticulated. Their mouth parts are reduced. These spring “flies” are similar to each other, in basic terms, in terms of lifestyle, and most importantly, in terms of development. In May-June, adult insects fly directly near water bodies. They move mainly at night. In the daytime, adult insects prefer to sit on aquatic plants, on boards, coastal alluvial debris, and more often behind the lapels of old bark on logs. Insect larvae almost always live in the aquatic environment in cocoons, or "houses" built by them. The name Shitiki appeared by analogy with Diptera, the dorsal part of which (three knees) is called the dorsal shield.

For the construction of shelters, the larvae use a wide variety of materials: just sand, and the "remains" of plants, and rather large pebbles, and pieces of shells of small shells, and small twigs and last year's rotted foliage. It has been observed that the larvae different types build their dwellings in the same natural conditions from similar materials. The main material, depending on the locality, can even be plant seeds. Each species builds, regardless of the source material, a cocoon of the same shape.

The larvae in their "fortresses" survive the winter and spring, attaching themselves together with the house to the threads of aquatic plants, closing the inlet and outlet (in stagnant cold water bodies this also happens in the middle of summer).

After a few weeks after the water warms up, a nymph emerges from the larva, and after a while an adult winged insect appears.

Caddisflies, which are of interest to the angler as insect larvae, usually have a two-year development cycle before becoming an adult insect. Therefore, they can be found at any time of the year. It should only be taken into account that at the end of August, with the beginning of the nightly cooling of the water, the larvae move to a depth of 1.5–2 m. This significantly complicates their prey, but the game is worth the candle, since it is with going deeper that the larvae become more accessible to large fish, and therefore, and more important as bait.

Literary advice regarding the effectiveness of the use of caddisflies in winter time I personally find it highly questionable. Repeatedly in the reservoirs of the Novgorod and Tver regions, I observed the hunting of caddisflies by local "masters" with the help of spears and brooms, but in a conversation with them it turned out that their goal was not caddisflies, but amphipod mormysh. However, based on my own fishing experience, I can safely say that the use of caddis flies as bait invariably leads to positive results when catching almost all types of fish - both in those waters where the caddis is found, and in those waters where it has never been possible to get it. .

WITH childhood, having read the then few “fishing” publications, I repeatedly tried to put into practice advice on how to save caddisfly larvae. If this is interesting, then I inform you that I have not seen a more capricious animal attachment than a caddisfly. I think that all the problems associated with the storage of caddis lies in the temperature. First, the larvae cannot be stored directly in the water. The actual volume in which you can store the bait is approximately 100-300 ml (g) of water. In order to maintain the necessary isothermal conditions in such a quantity of liquid, it is necessary to have at least a liquid thermostat with regulation according to the second accuracy class, which, alas, is not very realistic in our everyday practice. Theoretically, this is, of course, possible, but practically ... However, try it. There is another option - to introduce the larvae into a state close to suspended animation, that is, try to keep them at a temperature of about 4 °C (taking into account temperature depression). But then you will inevitably come into conflict with loved ones who want to take out of the home refrigerator in the morning not your bait, but butter and sausage, ready for immediate consumption.

For summer fishing, it is best to stock up on caddis for a day, keeping the rest in a damp cloth somewhere in the shade. In winter, I simply do not contact the caddisfly, since the time spent on its production significantly exceeds the time spent on fishing itself. Caddisfly is one of those very reliable baits, the real use of which turns fishing into baiting. The principle of each vegetable has its own time and each nozzle has its own fish in this case is fully realized.

The only place where I always and under any conditions use caddis flies as bait is all the water bodies around the city of Valdai, in the Novgorod region.

By the way, it has been noticed that if the caddisfly keeps at a depth of up to a meter, then large fish go to feed to the upper coastal edge, and if the larvae can only be caught at a depth, then there is no fishing in places where the depth is less than 3–4 m. meaning.

Now a few words about what size and color of caddis flies should be used as bait. I found the final answer to this question by analyzing the results of my numerous fishing trips on the lakes of the Valdai Upland. Regardless of the size and type of fish you intend to catch (be it roach weighing 20 to 300 g, ide weighing 70 g to 3 kg, bream weighing 50 g to 1,600 kg, carp weighing 200 to 300 g, perch weighing from 15 g to 2 kg), it is preferable to use the largest larvae as bait. As for color, greenish and brownish caddisflies are preferred. This is obvious, because the larvae of these shades are the most common.

, herbaceous plants (flowers) of reservoirs and swamps, aquatic invertebrates, freshwater and anadromous fish, amphibians and reptiles
4 pocket field determinant, including: inhabitants of water bodies
65 methodical benefits, among which 10 manuals are devoted to aquatic ecology and hydrobiology, and 40 educational and methodological films By methodologies conducting research work in nature (in the field).

Caddisflies and their larvae

Caddisflies (Trichoptera) are a special order of insects. In the USSR, there are currently more than 600 species that make up 16 families.

adult insects reminiscent of the appearance of nocturnal butterflies. They are usually painted different shades brown or gray in color and generally have a rather nondescript appearance. They fly little, often sitting on coastal plants. They usually stay near water bodies, but sometimes they fly quite far from them. Being at rest, they fold their wings along the back at an acute angle, like a house roof. They have the ability to quite deftly run on the surface of the water. They feed like butterflies, flower juice. Many adults do not take any food.

Adult caddisfly Glyphotaelius punctatolmeatus). Eating. led.

Many of these insects have a characteristic, rather unpleasant smell, which depends on the secretion of skin glands, which is especially noticeable if an adult specimen is held in the fingers of the hand. It is possible that this smell plays the role of a repellent in relation to the enemies of caddisflies, for example, birds.

Less common are larvae that do not have caps - most of the so-called campodeoid larvae, which differ from the previous ones in many features of their structure.

Cases of various caddis flies. (According to A.F. Winterhalter.)
1 - Agripnia (Agrypnia pagetana); 2 - large caddisfly (Phryganea grandis); 3 - Grammotaulius nitidus); 4, 5 - Glyphotaelius pellucidus; 6 - Platypteryx brevipennis; 7 - Limnophilus stigma; 8-18 - Limnophilus rhombicus and L. flavicornis; 19 - Anabolia (Anabolia nervosa); 20 - Stenophylax stellatus; 21 - Stenophylax rotundipennis; 22 - quiver (Limnophilus vitattus); 23 - molanna (Molanna angustata); 24 - Goera (Goera pilosa). Eating. led.

Caddisfly larvae lead an aquatic life. They are found everywhere in large numbers - in rivers, ponds, lakes, streams, not excluding even the smallest water bodies, such as never-ending ditches and puddles. These larvae are very interesting in terms of their diverse biological features and at the same time are easily observed in natural conditions at the bottom of reservoirs, are easily caught with a net, and live well in aquariums. Because of this, caddisflies are among the most important sightseeing objects both for a cursory acquaintance with them on excursions and for long-term systematic observations of them in a laboratory setting.
Most larvae live in special cases - cases, which they build from a wide variety of materials. Both in form and material, the covers are very diverse and in themselves can already serve as an object of excursion acquaintance.

The simplest form of sheaths is a reed tube into which the larvae crawls using an already prepared room (agrypnia - Agrypnia pagetana Curt., 1).
A more complex structure is a tubular case made of individual pieces of leaves, which the larva gnaws out and arranges along a spiral line (large caddisfly - Phryganea grandis L; 2). Sometimes the building material is arranged in a tile-like manner, and they are either pieces of reed (3, Grammotaulius), or pieces of leaves and fragments of bark (4, 5, Glyphotalius). Less often, plant remains are superimposed across the cap (Limnophilus stigma Curt., 7).
How varied the building material of the covers is shown by the constructions of the most common species of caddisflies in our country - the rhombic caddisfly (Limnophilus rhombicus L.) and the yellow-whiskered caddisfly (Limnophilus flavicornis F.). They use moss (8), and various blades of grass (9), and pieces of dead wood (10), and fresh tree twigs (11), and needles (12), and horsetail stalks mixed with other plant residues (13) for construction. ); they attach small shells (13) and sunflower husks (14), etc. to their dwelling. Sometimes representatives of these species build their tubes not from plant remains, but from small shells, for example, peas (15), small coils , young lawns and other molluscs (16, 17, 18).

From this it can be seen that the larvae can be determined by the material of the buildings only to a certain extent. Of great importance is the architectural shape of the cap, which in some genera is very typical (Phryganea, Molanna), but even this gives only an approximate idea of ​​what species the observer is dealing with.
Caddisfly species living in fast-flowing waters build caps from large and small grains of sand (Stenophylax, 20 and 21). Sometimes these mosaic buildings have the form of a wide flat shield, on the surface of which water slides freely without turning the cover over and without tearing it from its place (molanna - Molanna, 23). The Anabolia larva (Anabolia, 19) attaches heavy twigs and sticks to the sand tube, which, in fast-flowing water, most likely play the role of a kind of anchor. Goer larva (24) attaches 2-3 pebbles to a flattened sandy tube.

Two types of caddisfly larvae. est.vel. 1 - large caddisfly (Phryganea grand), the gills of the larva are depicted in an elevated state - in a live larva they are pressed to the body; 2 - larva, not building caps, campodeoid shape (Holocentropus diiblus).

It is quite clear that the case is beautiful protective device for larvae. He gives them a safe, durable shelter. In addition, this shelter, built from environmental materials, is well camouflaged among other underwater objects. It is remarkable that some forms of covers seem to copy underwater objects. Thus, the case of the caddisfly Limnophilus stigma strikingly resembles an alder fruit that has fallen into the water. Such protection is all the more necessary for caddisflies, since their larvae serve as a tasty food for many predators and are especially eagerly eaten by fish. This has long been known to anglers who use these larvae for baiting hooks.
At first glance, the cover is a bulky little convenient structure. However, a closer look reveals that this is not the case. It should not be overlooked that, according to the law of Archimedes, the cover weighs very little under water, and in cases where the material of the building approaches the specific gravity of water, the cover is completely weightless. Thanks to reliable web fastenings, the walls of the case are very durable, which is easy to see for anyone who tries to break it. The heterogeneous material from which the walls of the cases are composed is fitted together with remarkable skill. All this puts caddisfly larvae among the first-class builders in the insect world. The basis of the construction is very strong silk threads, with the help of which caddisflies bind and connect various building materials. These arachnoid threads are spun by the larvae from the secretions of a pair of long arachnoid glands, which open with a common duct on the lower lip and are built in exactly the same way as in caterpillars. The inside of the tube is completely covered with a delicate cobweb lining.
As you grow the larva builds on the front edge of its cap, making it wider; the rear end, which has already become narrow, is gradually broken off or gnawed by the larva.
If you take the larva out of the case (in the aquarium), then it looks extremely helpless, tries to hide under various objects, and after a while begins to build a new case for itself. Not finding the usual material, the larva also uses building particles that are new to it. Thus, for example, it is possible to force the larvae removed from the covers, which were made from plant remains, to build new dwellings from scraps of colored paper, sawdust, eggshells, even staniols, etc. For larvae building covers from grains of sand, we tried with successfully offer small beads, crushed glass, crushed bricks, metal filings.
Let us now follow the movements of the larva, choosing for this some large species, for example, large caddisflies that are often found in our country - large or striped (P. grandis and P. striata).
The larva captured by the net during fishing hides in its case and lies completely motionless, so that when parsing the contents of the net, it is easy to see it, mixing it with the stems of aquatic plants. Let's lower the caught larva into a flat vessel (a plate with water). Here she will soon expose the front end of her body from the case and begin to crawl along the bottom of the vessel, dragging her dwelling behind her. At the same time, one can see that the head, the first segment of the chest, covered with a hard shell, and three pairs of long legs protrude from the case. If you substitute some stems or sticks for the larva, you can see how tenacious its limbs are: it can crawl in various positions both along the upper and lower sides of underwater objects.

Caddisfly larvae taken out of their cases. Eating. led. 1 - Phryganea; 2 - Odontocerum alblcorne; 3 - Helicopsyche sperata.

Let's try to extract the larva from its shelter. It is easy to see that it offers great resistance in this case: if you drag it out of the tube, taking it by the front end of the body, then it is easier to break it than to release it from the cap. Meanwhile, the case seems rather spacious compared to the size of the body of the larva, and at first glance the force with which it lingers in its tube is incomprehensible.
To show what is the matter here, let us try to expel the larva from the cap in another way: we introduce a thin stick or straw through the posterior opening of the cap and disturb the larva from the posterior end of the abdomen. This trick makes her crawl out.
When examining, first of all, attention should be paid to the difference in the density of the cover, which covers the protected (sheath) and unprotected part of the body of the larva. Under the cover of the cap is the abdomen, consisting of ten segments, and the posterior (third) thoracic segment. These parts are covered with soft skin. On the contrary, the first two segments of the thorax, which the larva protrudes from the sheath during crawling, are strongly chitinized and have a much darker color. The significance of this phenomenon is quite understandable, especially if we recall a similar difference between a protected and unprotected body part in other animals, of which the famous hermit crab is a classic example.
Instructive are the devices by which the larva is firmly retained in its shelter when trying to extract it by the head end. At the posterior end of the abdomen, she has a pair of appendages, which are equipped with strong sharp hooks, the tips of which are directed in opposite directions. With the help of these hooks, the larva clings to the inner walls of the cap, acting like a pair of gaffs. In addition, the third segment of the thorax, which is adjacent to the outer edge of the cap, has three warty protrusions. The latter can strongly protrude and, in turn, resting against the walls of the cap, prevent the larva from falling out of its shelter.

Larvae of campodeoid form, which do not build caps, have a completely different body shape than those described above. Their body is laterally compressed and does not have a pair of hooks at the posterior end.

Breath. Even a cursory examination of the naked larva reveals that its round, elongated, caterpillar-like body is covered with whitish filamentous outgrowths. This is nothing more than the gills of a larva protected by a cap. The gill apparatus requires a constant change of water. This is achieved by the fact that the larva sitting in the case makes peculiar movements with the abdomen, thanks to which the D.C. water through the cap. This explains the meaning of the second hole at the rear end of the cap, through which water is pushed out during breathing. The wriggling of the abdomen can also be observed on a naked larva if placed in a vessel filled with water. The larvae, of the campodeoid type, which do not build a cap, produce similar movements.

feed on larvae of caddisflies, mainly plant matter, for example, leaves of aquatic plants.
Larvae belonging to the friganeid and limnophilid families are herbivorous forms: They are quite voracious and can eat per day an amount of food equal to their own body weight or even slightly more (in young larvae). Larvae from the Molannidae family are predators that feed on daphnia, chironomid larvae, etc. (Kolenkina, 1951). There were, however, cases that the larvae of the large caddisfly attacked water donkeys, frog tadpoles, and even each other. In aquariums, caddisfly larvae can be successfully fed with lettuce leaves.

Larvae of the campodeoid shape for the most part lead a predatory lifestyle and build special trapping nets woven from thin cobwebs to catch prey. Such networks, having the form of funnels, are located with a wide opening against the current and are attached motionlessly to aquatic plants, stones and other underwater objects. This is a kind of device for catching mayfly larvae, small crustaceans and similar live prey.

Reproduction and development. Along with crawling larvae, on excursions one can often find sheaths, which caddisflies are sealed at both ends with sieve caps (Fig. right). These are pupated caddisflies that cover the holes of their cases with cobwebs, leaving a free passage for water, but protecting themselves from predators. Usually pupation occurs in larvae in spring, in our latitudes in May (large caddisfly) or in June (larvae with sandy covers). Adult insects fly out in about a month.

If on the excursion it was possible to find such a sealed case, then it can be opened to examine the chrysalis enclosed inside, if it has already managed to form. The pupa is completely unlike the larva and has a very peculiar appearance (Fig. 240). She possesses the rudiments of wings, very long antennae, big eyes and huge mandibles, with the help of which, when she leaves her shelter with further development, she destroys the lid of the case. Thin threadlike gills are noticeable on the abdomen.

Pupa of the caddisfly Limnophilus. Eating. led.

The pupa is equipped with long swimming legs. At the posterior end of the pupa's body there are long bristles, with the help of which it cleans a hole in the sieve-like cap, which is easily clogged with silt, and thus provides access to fresh water. The opening of the anterior sieve operculum is cleaned with the help of bristles located on the upper lip, and also, perhaps, with the help of elongated jaws.

Activating this apparatus, the pupa makes rhythmic pendulum-like movements inside the case. The mature chrysalis leaves its shelter, gnawing through the cover. It is remarkable that for several minutes after being released from the cap, it floats freely on the surface of the water. Here she sheds her skin and turns into an adult caddisfly, which soon rises into the air.
It should be noted that an interesting phenomenon of short-term swimming of the pupa, as well as the process of hatching of an adult insect, is extremely rare to observe on an excursion. This phenomenon requires close, aquarium observations. But relatively often it is necessary to catch dead, completely mature pupae without a cap from the water with a net. This is explained by the fact that the chrysalis that has emerged from the case quickly dies if it does not find a way out of the water. In addition, pupal skins floating on the surface of the water are often found.
Caviar of various caddisflies: spiral, ring-shaped and finger-shaped (Triaenodes, Phryganea, Glyphotaelius). Eating. led.

The development of insects with incomplete and complete transformation

Development of insects with incomplete metamorphosis

In orthoptera, which include locusts, as well as in cockroaches, dragonflies, mayflies, praying mantises, stoneflies, earwigs, lice and homoptera, development occurs with incomplete transformation. This means that larvae appear from the eggs - small insects that look like their parents. They differ from adults only in size, lack of wings, and underdevelopment of the reproductive system. The larvae molt several times until they turn into sexually mature (adult) insects. Thus, in its individual development, an insect passes through three stages: 1) egg, 2) larva, 3) adult insect (imago).

Development of insects with complete metamorphosis

In insects with complete metamorphosis, the larvae do not look like adults at all. These are the larvae (caterpillars) of butterflies, beetles, hymenoptera and flies. These larvae lack compound eyes, sometimes there are no simple eyes either, the body is most often worm-like. Often there are no antennae, no wings. These larvae molt several times, actively feed and grow. Having reached the maximum size, the larva turns into a pupa - another stage of development (a fixed intermediate link between the larva and the adult insect). Thus, in insects with full development, four stages are present in ontogeny: 1) egg, 2) larva, 3) pupa, 4) adult insect (adult).

It is noteworthy that in insects with complete metamorphosis, the larvae live in other places and feed on different food than adult insects (adults).

Dragonfly Squad. Squad of caddis.

Order Dragonfly (Odonata)

Dragonflies are aerial predators. Often they eat prey on the fly. Large wings with reticulate venation in large dragonflies are always spread to the sides, in small ones (arrows, buttercups) at rest they can fold along the body. In some dragonflies, the wings are identical in shape, narrowed towards the base (suborder Homoptera), in others, the hindwings are wider than the front ones, especially at the base (suborder Hemoptera). The mentioned suborders also differ in the structure of the larvae, the features of biology.

When examining a dragonfly, huge eyes occupying most of the head attract attention. The eye consists of 28 thousand facets (ommatidia), each of which is served by 6 light-sensitive cells. The dragonfly is able to spot a mosquito at a distance of up to 10 meters. Eating mosquitoes, horseflies and other bloodsuckers, dragonflies are of great benefit.

The oral organs of dragonflies are gnawing, the lower lip is spoon-shaped, supporting the prey when eating in the air. The long legs are directed forward and covered with strong setae, the hind legs being longer than the forelegs. This helps the dragonfly catch its prey by flying up to it from below.

A thin rod-shaped abdomen during the flight acts as a balancer. The males have "forceps" at the top of the abdomen, with which they hold the female by the neck during mating. Such "tandems" of dragonflies can often be observed near water bodies. Dragonfly females drop their eggs into the water or place them in the tissues of aquatic plants using a piercing ovipositor.

Blue, green, yellow tones predominate in the coloration of dragonflies, bright metallic luster is less common. Some wings are spotted or darkened. In dried specimens, the color fades and changes greatly.

The development of all dragonflies necessarily passes through the aquatic stage - the nymph (the so-called insect larvae with rudiments of wings). All dragonfly nymphs are voracious predators, grabbing prey with a modified lower lip - a mask that rapidly opens and throws forward, while the claws at its front end, like stilettos, pierce deeply into the victim. When the mask is folded, the prey is pulled up to the mouth and chewed calmly. For breathing, the nymphs use the hindgut, which, like a pump, constantly pumps oxygen-rich water through the anus. In terms of size, structural features and habits, dragonfly nymphs are divided into a number of groups.

Order Caddisflies (Trichoptera)

Caddisflies are close relatives of Lepidoptera, however their wings are covered with hairs rather than scales. They are also driving insects. Many species fly at night to light near bodies of water. Adult caddis flies do not feed and do not live long. They are only able to lick off drops of dew or rain, and in some the mouth apparatus is reduced. Egg clutches look like slimy lumps, and are attached to underwater rocks or plants. The larva pupates under water in a case built by it. To exit the imago, the pupa floats to the surface, acting like oars with rowing middle legs.

About 150 species of caddisflies belonging to 15 families have been recorded in the Baikal region. Including from Baikal, 22 endemic species belonging to the Apataniidae family are known. Of the species with a wide distribution, representatives of the genus Limnephilus are more common than others, the larvae of which live in stagnant water bodies. The color of these caddisflies is brown or with a variegated pattern. The sizes are medium or large. Variegated wings are also possessed by representatives of the Phryganeidae family. The appearance of small caddisflies from the Lepidostomatidae family is very peculiar. The first segments of their antennae are much larger than the others and are densely pubescent. Apatanias (Apataniidae) are close to true caddisflies and are often considered in their composition. These are fragile insects of small size, sometimes with a light pattern. Most endemics of Baikal belong to the tribe Baicalinini. These caddis flies in spring and early summer appear en masse on the shores of Lake Baikal, sticking around coastal stones and plants.

In early spring in April-May, after the opening of Baikal from ice in the surf on the surface of ice, water and rocky coast, a huge number of adult caddisflies accumulate. These are dark gray tamastes (Thamastes dipterus) and tamastoid baicalina (Baicalina thamastoides). In June, there is a massive release of the yellow caddisfly Baicalina beautiful (Baicalina bellicosa). The body and wings of insects are densely covered with hairs; they almost do not fly due to undeveloped hind wings. They live for several days, mate, lay eggs in the form of gelatinous rounded clutches in water or on moistened stones, after which they die.

Mayfly Squad. Detachment Diptera.

Order Mayflies (Ephemeroptera)

Mayflies, along with dragonflies, are among the oldest insects, the fossil remains of which are known from the Devonian period. Greek word"ephemeron", from which it is formed scientific name detachment, means fleeting, soon passing. Indeed, mayfly adults live from several hours to several days without feeding at all. These are gentle, slender insects with transparent wings, pointing upwards at rest. A characteristic posture of a sitting mayfly with raised front legs and abdomen, on top of which there are 2 or 3 tail filaments. The intestines are filled with air, which the mayfly swallows, so the abdomen, like a balloon, performs an aerostatic function.

Large compound eyes in males are divided into two lobes - upper and lower. The upper ones may be larger, mushroom-shaped or turban-shaped in shape. Antennae short, subulate. The mouthparts are completely reduced.

In the development of mayflies, a process unique for winged insects is observed - molting in the adult stage. From the larva, a winged individual appears - the subimago, which, after a few seconds or minutes, molts onto the imago. The last one starts breeding.

The release of mayflies is often massive, and one can observe the swarming of insects, during which the sexes meet. Eggs are laid in the water immediately after mating or after a short time, after which the insects die, covering the shores of reservoirs with their bodies.

Order Diptera (Diptera)

The Diptera order includes about 80 thousand species and is considered one of the most advanced among insects. In Russian, Diptera with long limbs are referred to as mosquitoes, and the rest are called flies, which does not correspond to the scientific classification of the order. The external appearance of Diptera is characteristic, primarily due to the reduction of the hind wings, which are turned into short halteres. However, these are not useless rudiments. covered a large number sensitive receptors, halteres stimulate the nervous system and ensure the rapid activation of the forewings and the launch of Diptera, while at the same time being flight stabilizers.

Diptera usually have a large, often spherical head with large eyes, which in males may touch on the forehead. Antennae are of two types - multi-segmented in the suborder of long-whiskered dipterans and three-segmented in the suborder of short-whiskered dipterans. Mouth organs are transformed into various proboscis. In those who feed on liquid organic substances, these are sucking or licking-sucking organs, in bloodsuckers they are piercing-sucking.

In connection with the diptera, the mesothorax is especially developed. Noticeable costalization of the wing is observed; thickening of the anterior veins and shifting them to the anterior margin. The flight of diptera is very perfect, especially in hoverflies, with a quick start and hovering in the air. Mosquitoes can make up to 1000 wing beats per second, although they fly relatively slowly.

Diptera larvae are legless and rarely have false ventral limbs. In long-whiskers with a separate head, however, in most fly larvae, the head capsule is reduced, and the oral appendages are represented by a pair of retractable hooks. Pupae are free or in a false cocoon - puparia. When the fly emerges from the puparium, its shell at the top is either torn longitudinally (in straight-sutured dipterans) or in a circle, and folds back in the form of a small lid (in round-sutural dipterans).

Order Hemiptera. Butterfly Squad.

Order Hemiptera, or Bedbugs (Heteroptera)

They have a piercing-sucking proboscis that extends from the front edge of the head, which is how they differ from the Homoptera. Antennae 4-5-segmented. The wings are folded flat on the back, their base is rigid, the apex is membranous. Depending on the way of life, the legs of the bugs are running, walking, swimming, as well as digging and grasping. The mesothorax is the most massive, forming a shield on top, especially large in turtle bugs. The openings of the odorous glands open on the metathorax. The unique smell of bedbugs is familiar to everyone. This is what unsaturated cimicic acid smells like. The secret of the odorous glands serves to scare away enemies and attract individuals of the opposite sex. Predatory and aquatic bugs do not have scent glands.

Bedbug eggs are like a barrel with a lid. The transformation is incomplete, the larvae are similar to adults and from the 3rd instar acquire the rudiments of wings. Unlike adults, they do not have simple ocelli, and the openings of the odorous glands open on the dorsal side of the abdomen with three unpaired openings. The larvae go through several instars and develop from a few weeks to two years.

Butterflies or Lepidoptera

(Lepidoptera, see tables "Butterflies" I - IV) - form a large order of insects, comprising up to 22,000 species, including up to 3,500 species in the Russian Empire (in European and Asian Russia). These are insects with sucking mouthparts, forming for the most part a spirally coiled proboscis, with four uniform membranous wings covered with small, pollen-like, colored scales, and with complete metamorphosis. The body of butterflies, covered with thick hairs, like other insects, is divided into a head, chest and abdomen. The head bears the shackles, mouthparts and eyes. The screeds are multi-segmented and are very various shapes: most often bristly, filiform or club-shaped, sometimes serrated, comb-like or pinnate. The mouth organs are adapted for taking liquid food, especially for lapping sweet honey juices; only in a few butterflies they are very rudimentary and do not function, in some silkworms, for example, in the silkworm, in the hop fine-moth. The upper lip and upper jaws of butterflies are constantly rudimentary; the lower jaws, on the contrary, are strongly elongated, grooved, and grow together into a more or less long proboscis, which, in a resting state, is spirally folded and clasped laterally by three-segmented labial palps, densely covered with hairs. There are either no maxillary palps at all, or they are rudimentary and consist of 1–2 joints, and only in moths they represent 6 joints. In addition to two large faceted, or compound eyes, some butterflies have 2 more dotted, or simple eyes. The chest, like the whole body, is densely covered with hairs; the first or anterior ring is poorly developed and is free, while the other two are fused together; only in a few butterflies is each of them isolated (for example, in the hop snail). Wings two pairs; both of them are homogeneous, membranous. with a few veins and covered with small, tiled scales, which are very diverse in color and shape; they are wide or long, thick or thin, round or angular, blunt or sharp, with smooth edges or serrated, stalked or without stalks. Butterfly wings b. hours large.; the anterior pair is larger than the posterior one. Their general outline is very diverse: some have solid edges, while others have cutouts. In some, as, for example, in the pinoptera, the cuts reach almost to the very base of the wing; still others have tail-like appendages on the wings, and so on. In a few butterflies, the females have rudimentary wings in the form of two small lobules; for example, in the silkworm porter and winter moth (Acidalia brumata); y bag-bearers (Psyche) females are wingless. In a few butterflies, some places on the wings are not covered with scales and look like transparent spots (window), for example, atlas (Attacus Atlas), or the wings are transparent, glassy, ​​due to the fact that they have very few scales (dust) that quickly wear off , for example, glassware. When flying inner edge of the forewing tightly overlaps the anterior margin of the posterior, and in most B. both wings are even more closely connected: at the base of the hind wing there is a seta or a bundle of hairs, which enters into a ring-shaped, hook-shaped or groove-shaped formation that fits on the forewing; this device, so-called. latch, facilitates the spreading of the wings; it occurs only in butterflies and does not occur in insects of other orders. It is remarkable that many B. on the wings are drawings in the form of numbers and letters. So, on the underside of the admiral's wings there is a pattern in the form of the number 786. In the corner-wing, there is a white S. - in the middle of the hind wings, a pattern in the form of the German letter C. In the silkworm, tau - in the form of the Greek letter τ. In the soddy owl head (Acronycta psi) - in the form of the Greek letter ψ; on the front wings of the rich gamma (Plusia gamma, see Table II, Fig. 16) - in the form of the letter γ. In the owl head chi (Polia chi) - in the form of the letter χ; in the exclamation owlet (Agrotis exclamationis) in the form of an exclamation, and in the interrogative owlet (Agrotis interrogationis) in the form of a question mark, etc. Wing venation (Plate III, Fig. 21) is a differential feature in determining species and genera of butterflies. The wing represents a large middle cell starting from the base of the wing and giving 4-8 radial veins to the lateral parts (margins) of the wing; in addition, above and below the middle cell, parallel to the upper and lower margins, several longitudinal veins extend from the base of the wing. B.'s legs are tender and weak, and mostly have five-segmented tarsi; the first pair of legs in some species is less developed than others. The abdomen is either adjacent to the chest throughout (sessile) or separated from it by a slight constriction (stalked abdomen). It consists of 6 or 7 segments and is densely covered with hairs; in females of some species, a brush of thick and long hairs or a protruding and retractable ovipositor is placed at the end of it. In terms of internal organization, butterflies differ from other insects in some features. Their nervous system consists of a supraglottic node with large eye lobes, a subpharyngeal node, mostly two thoracic and four abdominal nodes (less often, there are three thoracic nodes and five abdominal nodes, for example, in the hop weed, Hepiatus humuli). Butterflies have, like most insects, a sympathetic nervous system. The digestive organs consist of the esophagus, equipped with a stalked goiter on the side, from the stomach and from the intestinal canal, which is divided into the small and large intestines. On the sides of the esophagus are two tubular salivary glands that open into the oral cavity. On the sides of the stomach and intestinal canal, three Malpighian vessels (urine-excreting organs) are placed on each side, which open at the beginning of the intestine on each side through one common vessel, with which all three are connected. Some butterflies (hawks, moths) have an oblong sac-like process on the large intestine, the so-called caecum. The heart of butterflies, like all insects, is a multi-chamber tube that fits on the back. The respiratory organs consist of numerous branched respiratory tubes (trachea), distributing their small branches throughout the body. These respiratory tubes open outwards by spiracles located on the sides of the body through which air enters when inhaled and exits when exhaled. Male reproductive organs (consist of two testicles enclosed in one common, mostly brightly colored sac, of two vas deferens, sometimes representing extensions (seminal vesicles) and connected into one common ejaculatory canal, which ends at the base of a hard, chitinous, copulatory organ. female organs Butterfly breeding consists of two ovaries, two oviducts connected into one common tube - the vagina, which opens outwards with a hole. Connected to the vagina: the seminal receptacle and adnexal glands, and many butterflies also have a copulatory pouch. Males and females are often more or less significantly different from each other. These differences are very varied. Very often, the entire sexual difference is limited only by the fact that the male has a shorter and more cylindrical abdomen; for the most part, the female is somewhat larger than the male and has a less bright color and a less distinct wing pattern. In some species, the females, as we have already pointed out, have wings that are underdeveloped and not suitable for flying, for example, those of the silkworm, the porter, or they do not have them at all (for example, the winter moth, Hibenna defoliaria). In bag-bearing females, the females are larval-shaped and completely wingless. There are no wingless males. Sometimes both sexes have wings, but in males they have a different shape than in females or they are of a different color, for example, in males of the hop weed (Hepialus humuli) wings are white, and in females they are yellow. In some butterflies, sexual differences are seen in the form of ties: for example, in males, ties are comb-like, and in females, they are serrated or filiform.

Squad of Cockroaches. Detachment Beetles

Order Cockroaches (Blattodea)

Cockroaches and praying mantises are groups often combined into one order, Dictyoptera, where they are considered in the rank of suborders. The basis for such an association is the similar structure of the wings, mouth organs and genitals.

Cockroaches have a strongly bent (hypognathic) head, covered from above by the anterior edge of the pronotum. The antennae are long, bristle-shaped, the eyes are well developed, there are simple eyes. Forewings leathery (elytra), with simple longitudinal venation, hindwings with rich reticulate venation, folded fan-shaped at rest. They fly poorly and reluctantly, in many species the wings are shortened or completely reduced. The legs are strong, running, with large coxae, covered with spikes, and the tarsi are 5-segmented. End of abdomen with short segmented cerci. Abdomen of males often with odorous glands, copulatory organs are asymmetrical.

The abdomen of the female ends with sternite VII, called the genital plate, which covers the genital chamber from below. The latter is formed by invagination of sternite VIII together with the ovipositor. It should be said that in extinct cockroaches, the ovipositor was an external organ. Ripe eggs enter the genital chamber and stick together with the secretion of special glands, forming an ootheca. An ootheca contains from 15 to 40 eggs; its shape and surface sculpture are species-specific. Some species shed the ootheca almost immediately after its formation (American cockroach), others wear it at the end of the abdomen almost until the juveniles hatch (Prusak), in others, the ootheca is located in the genital chamber and hatching occurs right there, which is a typical ovoviviparity (Madagascar cockroach) . In the latter case, the eggs receive the necessary substances from the mother's body.

The transformation is incomplete. Larvae undergo 5-9 molts, small species develop faster, large ones may take a year or more to fully develop. Life expectancy - from 1 year to 7 years.

All cockroaches are nocturnal, hiding during the day in various cavities and wells. The largest number of species lives in the tropics, associated mainly with moist forests. Many detritivorous species are important as active destroyers of litter and rotting wood. The Far Eastern relic cockroach and other species that feed on rotten wood have symbiotic protozoa in their intestines to help them digest fiber. Similar cockroaches from the genus Cryptocercus, living in colonies, lead a very close to social lifestyle.

Order Coleoptera or Beetles (Coleoptera)

A huge detachment of beetles has more than 300 thousand species worldwide, which is a quarter of all insects. Over 3000 species of beetles live in the Baikal region.

To the most large species Our fauna includes the emerald ground beetle (Carabus smaragdinus) (up to 35 mm in length with mandibles), the Urussov barbel (Monochamus urussovi) (up to 35 mm), and the large pine borer (Buprestis mariana) (up to 32 mm). The smallest beetles are found in the Ptiliidae family - less than 1 mm.

The coloration, shape and structure of the integument of beetles is extremely diverse, many are very beautiful, which makes beetles one of the favorite collectibles. The compact shape of the body with dense elytra allows the beetles to populate a wide variety of substrates. Their burrowing mouth apparatus has various modifications and is adapted to feeding on any food. Development with complete transformation and a variety of types of larvae allow beetles to adapt to different habitats. All of the above makes beetles one of the groups of insects most adapted to living on land and explains their high species diversity.

Detachment Orthoptera. Flea Squad.

Order Orthoptera (Orthoptera)

The appearance of Orthoptera is varied, but very characteristic. They are large or medium-sized insects with gnawing mouthparts, hopping hind legs, and usually long antennae, sometimes exceeding body length. Orthopterans are also characterized by a large pronotum hanging over the sides. Female grasshoppers have a sword-shaped ovipositor that is flat in cross-section, which in some species may be short and serrated at the apex. In female candles, the ovipositor is round in cross section, spear-shaped. Locusts and jumpers have a digging ovipositor, consisting of 4 finger-shaped valves.

Orthoptera have various organs of chirring and hearing. Males lure females to the sounds of the mating song. The sounds emitted can be territorial and defensive in nature. Some of the locust sounds are in the ultrasonic range and are inaccessible to the human ear.

Reproduction by laying eggs. Grasshoppers and crickets lay their eggs in the soil or turf one by one with the help of a long ovipositor. Stem crickets and some grasshoppers place their eggs in plant tissue by sawing through them with their ovipositor. Locusts dig a hole in the soil, where they lay a portion of eggs, filling them with foamy secretions of adnexal glands. Solidifying this mass with soil particles adhering to it forms a capsule, characteristic of each species. In the Baikal region, all species develop in one generation. Eggs hibernate, only quails can hibernate larvae.

In general, Orthoptera are heat-loving insects that prefer open spaces, only a few species live under the forest canopy. There are two life forms with some variants:

1. Phytophils, stick to plants

1.1. Hortobionts, inhabitants of the herbaceous layer (part of locusts and grasshoppers)

1.2. Tamnobionts, inhabitants of the crowns of trees and shrubs (grasshoppers and stem crickets)

2. Geophiles, live on the soil or in the soil

2.1. Open geophiles, sticking to the soil surface (many grasshoppers)

2.2. Hidden geophiles dig minks in the soil (crickets, quails)

2.3. Geobionts, lead an underground lifestyle (bears)

Order Fleas (Siphonaptera)

The body structure of fleas is adapted to movement in the coat of the host animal in much the same way as the structure of the locust body is adapted to movement in the grass cover - it is strongly flattened laterally. The hind legs of fleas are jumping, the tarsi of all legs are perfectly developed, 5-segmented, ending in 2 claws. The head is small, on the head there are short antennae, in front of them there is a simple eye.

The mouthparts of fleas are adapted for piercing the skin and sucking out blood; the puncture of the skin is carried out by jagged mandibles. Feeding, fleas fill the stomach with blood, which can greatly swell.

Male fleas are smaller than females. Fertilized females forcefully eject eggs, usually in batches of several pieces so that the eggs do not remain on the animal's fur, but fall to the ground, usually in the hole of the host animal or in other places it constantly visits.

A legless, but very mobile, worm-like larva emerges from the egg (Fig. 430, 2) with a well-developed head. For further development, the larva needs sufficient moisture, so it burrows into the ground or debris in the host's nest or burrow. The larva feeds on various decaying remains, and in many species it also needs to feed on the remains of undigested blood contained in the feces of adult fleas.

The grown larva spins a cocoon for itself, protected from above by dust and grains of sand, and pupates in it. The pupa of fleas is free. The adult flea, emerging from the pupa, watches over the host animal.

Some more polyphagous fleas can attack any animal; It is known that the monotreme and marsupial flea in Australia (Echidnophaga ambuans) temporarily feeds on snakes, and some of our fleas even feed on caterpillars! But fleas can normally exist and breed only on animals suitable for them.

There are many fleas where there are places for the development of their larvae - dirty cracks in the floor, dirty carpets, etc., where in the dust and debris the larvae can feed on various decaying residues and excrement of adult fleas.

Fleas are a detachment of insects that are difficult to bring together with other groups. According to the structure of the larvae, they resemble Diptera, the pupa and some details of the structure of adult fleas make it possible to bring them closer to beetles.

Squad Vshi. Order Hymenoptera

Order Lice (Anoplura)

Lice are sucking insects. Their mouthparts are adapted to pierce the dense integument of the host animal and suck out blood. The mouthparts are transformed into stabbing needles enclosed in a soft tube everted out of the oral cavity, the edges of which are tightly pressed against the skin of the host animal pierced by stylets.

When sucking blood, the louse's anterior esophagus expands, acting as a pump. The secretions of powerfully developed salivary glands entering the wound prevent blood clotting. When the louse is not feeding, the mouthparts that form the proboscis are retracted into the head capsule. Eyes in lice either present only small pigmented spots, or are completely absent. The antennae are short, and there are no palps associated with the oral organs at all. The chest is well separated from the head, all segments of the chest are fused.

Order Hymenoptera (Nutenoptera)

Hymenoptera (Hymenoptera) is one of the most advanced insect orders in the evolutionary pan. Currently, they are distributed on all continents except Antarctica. Some Hymenoptera, such as bumblebees, are among the northernmost insects. Adult insects have two pairs of membranous wings covered with relatively sparse veins, and small forms are usually almost or completely devoid of venation. The hind pair of wings is smaller and is of secondary importance in flight. In living insects, both pairs of wings are usually fastened with hooks to each other and work as one plane. Some species (worker ants, female drinids, Germans and some betylids and riders) do not have wings.

The mouthparts are gnawing or licking-gnawing. In the latter case, the lower lip and lower jaws are extended and form a proboscis with a tongue at the end. Such a mouth apparatus serves to suck nectar from the flowers. Mandibles are well developed in all species and are used not only for feeding, but also for building nests, digging soil, etc. In some ants, they have a bizarre shape and exceed the length of the head.

Antennae are simple, club-shaped, comb-shaped, pinnate, are both straight and geniculate. In the latter case, their first segment is elongated and is called the handle, while the remaining segments form a flagellum. The number of antennal segments varies from 3 to 70. The head has a pair of compound compound eyes and 3 simple ocelli, but some ants are completely blind.

The legs are running with a 5-segmented tarsus. The tibia and tarsus of the fore leg sometimes bear a special apparatus for cleaning the antennae and tarsi, formed by a pectinate spur at the end of the tibia and a notch on the first segment of the tarsus.

An interesting feature of Hymenoptera is that females tend to lay either haploid or diploid eggs. Males always develop from the former, only females from the latter. In typical cases, haploid eggs are unfertilized, and diploid eggs are fertilized. However, in some cases, parthenogenesis is observed. At the same time, during the formation of eggs, one reduction division falls out, and unfertilized eggs remain diploid.

The transformation is complete. Sawfly larvae look very similar to caterpillars and therefore are called caterpillars.

Sexual dimorphism is well expressed. Often there is a polymorphism in which there are several forms of females. Social hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps) develop a caste of working individuals - barren females that perform various jobs in the nest. The polymorphism is most pronounced in ants, where workers are always wingless. Within this caste, some ants are further subdivided into podcasts of soldiers, honey barrels, and so on. In some species, the number of sharply isolated subcastes of workers reaches six. All this is due to the complex division of functions in the ant family.

The way of life of Hymenoptera is extremely diverse. Horntails tend to develop in the wood of trees. The larvae of most sawflies feed on plant leaves, and in general this group is biologically similar to butterflies, which is reflected in the convergent similarity of larvae. Among the stinging hymenoptera we find a huge variety of complex instinctive activities associated with the care of offspring, the apex of which is the "social" behavior of ants, fold-winged wasps and bees.

Insects are pests of fruit crops.

The army of pests of fruit crops consists of:

- sucking pests, including aphids (insects with incomplete transformation. In their development, they have winged and wingless forms), psyllids or suckers ( small insects capable of flying and jumping well, their hind legs are of a jumping type. Feeding, the larvae of psyllids excrete excrement in the form of a sugary sticky liquid - “honeydew”, for which they are called suckers), mites (herbivorous mites that damage fruit crops belong to the families of spider, brown, gall mites and flatworms);

- pests of generative organs , including fruit weevils (they got their name for the peculiar arrangement of the head. In most species, it is extended forward and forms the so-called head-tube, on which there are mouth organs, cranked or straight club-shaped antennae. Under this name, beetles from two families are combined - weevils and tubeworms.Fruit trees damage more than 10 species of these pests.Some gnaw out blossoming buds, others, eating stamens and pistils in buds, do not allow fruits to set, still others cause fall and decay of the formed fruits, etc. To determine which beetles - weevils settled in the garden, it is enough during the swelling of the buds to shake them off the tree onto the litter spread under it in the morning, when the beetles do not yet fly.Beetles are characterized by the phenomenon of temporary immobility (akinesis) in case of their sharp irritation. fruit sawflies, bronzovok, codling moth;

- leaf-eating pests , which include representatives of the families of whiteworts, volnyanok, cocoonworms, she-bears, real moths. They cause considerable damage to fruit trees. Hatching caterpillars damage buds and buds. Along with their development, the harmfulness also increases. Caterpillars of younger ages skeletonize leaves or feed on the pulp inside them. Growing up, they eat leaves from the edges, and having matured, they eat the leaf blade completely, leaving only thick veins.

With the mass development of gnawing pests, it is painful to look at damaged trees. Such trees drop their ovaries, the remaining fruits grow small and tasteless. But even a heavily damaged tree tries to survive. Eaten by caterpillars in spring, by the middle of summer it turns green again. However, a weakened tree no longer gives normal growth, cannot lay the required number of fruit buds for the next year's harvest. When severely damaged, trees do not tolerate drought well and are poorly prepared for winter, as a result of which they suffer more in winter. In the future, weakened trees are willingly inhabited by bark beetles and other pests. Leaf-eating pests often appear in gardens from forest belts, hardwood forests bordering on fruit plantations. Developing massively, they cause harm to perennial plantings.

- pests of trunks and trees . This group includes insects of different families, differing from each other not only in their way of life, but also in their way of feeding.

Californian, pseudo-Californian and apple comma-shaped scale insects, plum and acacia false scale insects cause tangible harm to fruit trees. These sucking pests are very widespread and, when heavily infested, cause branches and even trees to dry out.

Bast and water-conducting layer of sapwood of trunks and branches fruit trees bark beetles feed - wrinkled and fruit sapwood, unpaired bark beetles. Cutting passages under the bark, they disrupt the flow of sap, causing the death of entire branches.

In the wood of shoots, main branches and trunks for 2 years they live and actively feed, without leaving the surface, caterpillars of the corrosive woodworm, fragrant wood borer and apple glass. Inhabited by pests, trees weaken, grow poorly, stop bearing fruit early.

Large peach aphids also cause considerable harm to stone fruit trees. Unlike other representatives of a huge family, it leads a monoecious development cycle on boles and skeletal branches of fruit trees.

Leaf rolling, from the family of which fruit and berry crops in gardens damage about 70 species. Many of them are polyphagous, damaging all fruit and forest deciduous trees, berry and ornamental shrubs. The caterpillars of most species live in rolled leaves, which is how the insects get their name. Many species are very similar in the nature of lesions, developmental biology, and phenology, and it is not always possible to establish the identity of the species from the feeding larvae. The most dangerous in the gardens are rose and variegated leafworms.

Insect pests of agricultural crops

Pests of agricultural plants are animals that damage crop plants or cause their death. The damage caused by pests and plant diseases is great. Among vertebrates, there are many V. s. R. in the class of mammals, especially in the order of rodents. From invertebrate animals page - x. plants damage some species of gastropods; a significant number of roundworms from the nematode class. The most diverse and numerous types of V. with. r., belonging to the type of arthropods: the class of insects, the class of arachnids (Ticks), some species from the class of centipedes and crustaceans (woodlice).

Insects cause the greatest damage to crops, which is primarily due to their biological characteristics, abundance of species, high fertility and speed of reproduction. Insects harmful to agriculture are classified according to a systematic principle (by orders) and according to the nature of their diet. Herbivorous insects and mites are divided into polyphages, or polyphagous, feeding on plants of different families; oligophages, or limited-eating, feeding on plants of different species of the same family; monophagous, or monophagous, - mainly plants of any one species. Polyphagous pests cause great damage to the crops of different crops: locusts, some crickets (for example, a bear); from beetles - click beetles, dark beetles and others; of butterflies - the winter scoop and related species of nibbling scoops, the stem moth, the gamma scoop, etc. There are numerous restricted-eating insects, which include the swedish fly, green-eyed fly, Hessian fly, Kuzka grain beetle and many others that feed exclusively on cereal plants. Nodule weevils, pea codling moths, pea aphids and others damage leguminous plants. The types of insects that feed on cruciferous plants are very diverse - cabbage whitefish, cabbage moth, cruciferous fleas, cabbage fly, etc. Of the monophagous phylloxera, which damages the vine, the pea weevil - peas, the clover weevil - clover, etc. are very harmful. and ticks are also classified according to the groups of crops damaged by them - pests of cereals, pests vegetable crops etc., which is convenient for practical purposes.

There are two main types of plant damage; the first is characteristic of insects with gnawing, the second with piercing-sucking mouthparts. Gnawing insects eat plants roughly or partially from the edges of the leaf, skeletonize the leaves, gnaw at the parenchyma, etc., gnaw through or partially gnaw the leaves, stems and shoots, eat through passages, mine leaves and stems, gnaw bast, cambium and wood under the bark, etc. The piercing-sucking insects, for example, aphids, bedbugs, etc., are introduced into plants before feeding by the secretions of the salivary glands, the enzymes of which cause a number of biochemical changes. Often these or those V. with. R. in their nutrition are confined to certain plant organs. Hence the groups of pests of roots, stems, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, etc. An important species feature of V. s. R. there is also a more or less pronounced selectivity in relation to the age and physiological state of the damaged plant organ. So, aphids prefer to eat young tissues, cherry slimy sawfly- adult tissues, etc.

V.'s distribution with. R. and the formation of a complex of species in certain agrobiocenoses are directly dependent on changing conditions environment and ecological plasticity of species.

For the development and reproduction of insects and mites, temperature conditions. Each species is characterized by a certain temperature regime, in which all life processes are most intensive. Large deviations from the optimum often cause the death of the pest. The ability of insects to endure prolonged cooling differs not only in individual species, but even in one species, depending on its physiological state. For insects, the development of which is associated with the soil, its chemical composition, acidity, physical structure, aeration and humidity are essential. By influencing these factors with the help of agricultural techniques (tillage, fertilization, etc.), it is possible to significantly change the conditions in the direction unfavorable for harmful insects. For example, liming acidic soils worsens the breeding conditions for many species of click beetles. Among other factors, the interrelation of V. with. R. with other animal organisms

Fight against V. with. R. consists in the implementation of systems of measures based on a rational and differentiated combination of various methods, aimed primarily at solving preventive problems.

Meaning of insects

The value of insects in nature

Insects make up about 80% of all animals on Earth, according to various estimates, in the modern fauna there are from 2 to 10 million species of insects, of which just over 1 million are known so far. Actively participating in the circulation of substances, insects play a global planetary role in nature.

More than 80% of plants are pollinated by insects, and it is safe to say that the flower is the result of the joint evolution of plants and insects. The adaptations of flowering plants to attract insects are diverse: pollen, nectar, essential oils, aroma, shape and color of the flower. Adaptations of insects: sucking proboscis of butterflies, gnawing-licking proboscis of bees; special pollen-collecting apparatus - bees and bumblebees have a brush and a basket on their hind legs, megachil bees have an abdominal brush, numerous hairs on the legs and body.

Insects play an important role in soil formation. Such participation is associated not only with the loosening of the soil and its enrichment with humus by soil insects and their larvae, but also with the decomposition of plant and animal residues - plant litter, corpses and animal excrement, while the sanitary role and the circulation of substances in nature are performed.

The following types of insects perform a sanitary role:

coprophages - dung beetles, dung beetles, cowsheds;

Necrophages - dead-eaters, gravediggers, leather-eaters, meat-eating flies, scavengers;

Insects - destroyers of dead plant residues: wood, branches, leaves, needles - drill beetles, larvae of barbels, borers, horntails, centipede mosquitoes, carpenter ants, mushroom mosquitoes, etc .;

Insects - orderlies of reservoirs feed on rotting organic matter suspended or settled to the bottom (detritus) - larvae of mosquitoes-twitchers, or bells, mayflies, caddisflies, purify water and serve as a bioindicator of its sanitary condition.

The value of insects in human life

In the life and economic activity of a person, they have both positive and negative meaning.

Of the more than 1 million species of insects, the real pests that need to be controlled are about 1%. The bulk of insects are indifferent to humans or are beneficial. Domesticated insects - honey bee and silkworm, beekeeping and sericulture are based on their breeding. The honey bee produces honey, wax, propolis (bee glue), apilac (bee venom), royal jelly; silkworm - a silk thread secreted by the caterpillar's spinning glands during the construction of a cocoon, the silk thread is continuous, up to 1000 m in length. In addition to these insects, the following are valuable products: caterpillars of the oak cocoon moth, their coarser silk thread is used to make flaky fabric; lac bugs secrete shellac, a waxy substance with insulating properties used in radio and electrical engineering; carmine worms (Mexican and Ararat cochineal) give red carmine dye; blister beetles secrete the caustic substance cantharidin, which is used to make a blister patch.

Insect pollinators, representatives of many orders, among which an important place is occupied by hymenoptera, increase the yields of seeds, berries, fruits, flowers of many cultivated plants - fruit and berry, vegetable, fodder, flower.

The Drosophila fruit fly, due to its fecundity and reproduction rate, is not only a classic object of genetics research, but also one of the ideal experimental animals for biological research in space. Fossil insects are used in stratigraphy to determine the age of sedimentary rocks.

Sense organs of chordates

The fish has a relatively small but fairly well developed brain, from which nerves extend, including: olfactory, visual, acoustic and gustatory. The spinal cord serves primarily to receive signals from the brain.

In the region of the snout, which is characterized by the distance from the beginning of the head to the anterior edge of the eye, there are nasal openings and a mouth. The position and structure of the mouth depends on the way of feeding. The mouth opening is often framed by lips. Near the mouth, in most cases in the snout area, there can be long outgrowths - antennae, which serve as organs of touch and have taste cells that help the fish find food.

The eyes are located on both sides of the head, which provides a large field of vision. In most fish, the eyes are located on the sides of the head, closer to the end of the snout than to the gills. The distance between the eyes, measured from the top of the head, is called the breadth of the forehead.

A unique sense organ is the often visible lateral line, which consists of small holes in the scales, which are the outlets of tubules connected to the sensory cells of the subcutaneous canal. In most fish, the lateral line is complete and runs in an almost straight line along the side of the body from the head to the caudal fin. But, it may be incomplete, i.e. occupy several scales, intermittent or completely absent.

Comparative characteristics of the digestive system of chordates.

The digestive tract consists of the mouth opening, oral cavity, pharyngeal cavity, esophagus, stomach (absent in cyprinids), intestines, rectum and adnexal organs involved in the digestion of food. In the oral cavity, in most cases, there are teeth, which are often renewed after wear. The pharyngeal cavity is cut through by gill slits, and the gill rakers prevent food from escaping through them. This is followed by a short and narrow esophagus, which passes into the stomach, which is connected to the intestines. In carnivorous fish it is short, in herbivorous fish it is long and spirally folded. Throughout the digestive tract are mucous glands. Near the intestines are located: a large liver and pancreas rich in fat and vitamins. These three organs digest food, i.e. decompose it into its simplest components, and then assimilate. Undigested residues are sent to the rectum and exit through the anus. The kidneys, which serve to excrete waste, are located close to the spinal column and join at the back. The ureters, also connected, flow into the bladder, from where the duct departs, which goes out next to the genital opening.

Ecological groups of fish

The ecological classification of fish can be based on two initial points: 1) their relationship to the salinity of the water and 2) their dependence on the habitat in the basins.

In relation to salinity, the following main groups are distinguished: marine fish, anadromous, semi-anadromous and freshwater.

Marine fish are characterized by the fact that they spend their whole lives in sea water and, when moved to fresh water, as a rule, die very quickly. This includes the vast majority of fish species.

Anadromous fish spend most of their lives in the sea, where they only feed, breed in fresh waters (due to the disastrous effect of salt water on their eggs). For the most part, these fish are confined to temperate and cold regions of the northern hemisphere. An example of anadromous fish is the majority of salmonids, in particular the noble salmon and the Far Eastern chum salmon, almost all sturgeons, and some herrings. Anadromous fish also include river eel (several closely related species) - almost the only fish that lives in fresh water and goes to breed in the sea.

Semi-anadromous, or estuarine, fish live in desalinated areas of the sea adjacent to the mouths of rivers, but for wintering and breeding they enter only the lower reaches of the rivers. So do, for example, bream, catfish, carp, pike perch and some other fish of the lower reaches of the Volga. The same fish in other pools can spend their whole lives in fresh water. Thus, the group of semi-anadromous fishes is to a large extent conditional.

Freshwater fish constantly live in fresh water and, as a rule, are not found in sea or even brackish water.

Based on the habitat in the pool, the fish are divided into pelagic, or open water, littoral, or coastal, and abyssal, or deep water. Although this classification is applicable to all fish, both marine and freshwater, it can be made especially clear only for marine ones.

Class Cartilaginous fish. Organization Features

Cartilaginous fish are the most ancient classes of fish that exist today. The most common cartilaginous are sharks and rays. All cartilaginous fish are characterized by the absence of bones in the skeleton, although cartilage can become quite strong due to the accumulation of minerals in them. Also, cartilaginous fish do not have a swim bladder, so in order not to sink to the bottom, they must constantly swim. Sometimes a very large fatty liver plays the role of a float, and some sharks are able to swallow air, temporarily providing themselves with buoyancy. In some species of cartilaginous fish, live birth takes place. The scales of cartilaginous fish underlie their teeth, and sometimes (in rays) are shaped into needles or spines.

The living cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes) are characterized by a cartilaginous, often partially calcified, internal skeleton, the absence of skin bones, covered with dentate (plakoid) scales (less often bare) skin, enameled teeth, 5-7 pairs of external gill slits (in elasmobranchs).

Most cartilaginous fish are also characterized by a transverse mouth (therefore they were called transverse mouths - Plagiostomata), from the corners of which nasolabial furrows run to the nostrils; a spiral valve in the intestine that increases the suction surface; an arterial cone located in front of the heart, equipped with several valves; progressive brain. Cartilaginous fish lack a swim bladder. Large eggs; fish lay them on the bottom in horn capsules, or the development of eggs takes place inside the body of the female, as in higher vertebrates.

Almost all cartilaginous fish are marine, only a few species are found in fresh waters. These are ancient fish that first appeared at the end of the Devonian period. At one time they dominated the waters of our planet, and then many groups of cartilaginous fish became extinct.

Currently, cartilaginous fish are represented by two subclasses - a subclass of elasmobranchii (Elasmobranchii) and a subclass of fused-cranial, or whole-headed (Holocepha1i).

During the entire history of development, elasmobranchs have developed a number of progressive features - live birth, progressive structure of the brain, high hydrodynamic qualities, etc. This allowed them to withstand competition from bony fish, which developed rapidly in eras closer to us. Currently, about 600 species of cartilaginous fish are known.

The fused-cranial differ from the elasmo-gill in the peculiar structure of the skull and dental apparatus (described below), as well as in the presence of one gill slit on each side of the head. About 30 species of living fish of this group are known, living mostly in the depths of the sea.

Class Bony fish. Organization Features

This is the most numerous class of chordates. Its representatives are very diverse in structure, and the taxonomy is complex. The most numerous highly organized and phylogenetically younger group is bony fishes. It includes about 20,000 living species. It includes the following orders: herring-like, salmon-like, eel-like, carp-like, cod-like, perch-like and many others.

Features of the organization of bony fish

The mode of movement of these fish is fundamentally the same as that of the cartilaginous ones. Forward movement is carried out by bending the entire body, mainly the tail section. Unlike cartilage, their skeleton is bony. It consists of the spine, skeleton, fins and skull, represented by the brain and visceral region. The visceral skull is composed of the jaw, hyoid, and gill arches. Bone tissue is also involved in the formation of scales, thin tiled plates that cover the entire body and play a protective role. They have the same fin system as cartilaginous fish. The differences are in the position of the paired fins on the body. Their bases are located not in a horizontal plane, as in cartilaginous fish, but in a vertical one. This increases the maneuverability of the movement. Compared to cartilaginous fish, the structure of the skeleton of paired fins is simplified. The caudal fin has a homocercal shape. Both of its lobes are developed symmetrically. The change in the shape of the caudal fin is associated with the appearance of a swim bladder in bony fish, with the help of which vertical movements of fish from the depth of the reservoir to the surface and vice versa occur. The tail fin does not matter. The swim bladder is filled with gas, the volume of which changes. When the volume of the swim bladder increases, the volume of the body also increases, respectively, the specific gravity decreases, and the fish emerges. In some fish, gas enters the swim bladder through the esophagus, to which the swim bladder is connected. These fish are called open-bubble fish. In others, the bubble does not communicate with the environment. These are closed bladder fish. In this case, there are accumulations of blood vessels in the walls of the bladder - a red spot or a gas gland. These vessels either release gas from the blood or absorb it. Due to this, the volume of the bubble changes. In bony fish, the digestive tract is differentiated to the same extent as in cartilaginous fish, but its length is greater. At the same time, the spiral valve disappears in the large intestine. Therefore, the method of increasing the digestive surface in cartilaginous and bony fish is different. They differ from cartilaginous fish in the structure of the gills. Their gill septa disappear. Instead of five pairs of gill slits, as a rule, only one remains. Gill slits are covered with bony gill covers, which are absent in cartilaginous ones. In this regard, a more perfect way of breathing appears, in which the gill covers take part. When the operculum rises, water from the oropharyngeal cavity is sucked into the lateral gill cavity. When the lid is lowered, water from the lateral gill cavity is pushed out through the external gill slits. Differences in the circulatory system is that there is no arterial cone in the heart. In the adult state, the trunk kidneys function in bony fish. The central nervous system as a whole does not differ from that of cartilaginous fish, but the forebrain is less developed. In its roof there is no gray matter, which is concentrated at the bottom of the ventricles, in the striatum. According to the degree of development of the sense organs, bony fish do not differ from cartilaginous ones. Reproduction. The testicles and ovaries are paired. Females do not have genital ducts, and the ovary opens outwards with a special opening. In males, the reproductive ducts are canals, representing a neoplasm that is characteristic only of bony fish. The cloaca is absent. Fertilization is external. Care for offspring is expressed in a huge number of eggs laid. Many eggs die, but enough of them remain for the continuation of the species.

Ecological groups of birds.

Birds of meadows and fields nest and feed on the ground. They unite representatives of many orders: larks, wagtails (passerine orders), lapwings (waders order), cranes (crane-like order), partridges and quails (chicken order), corostels (shepherdess order).

Birds of swamps and coasts forage from the surface of the earth, from the bottom or wet ground, and therefore some of them have ankle-legged and thin fingers without membranes (herons and storks - a stork order), others have membranes on their legs (swans, geese , goose, ducks, teals, dives - anseriform detachment. The life of many birds is closely connected with the reservoirs in which they forage. Waterfowl, as the name itself shows, are able to swim, and many of them also dive. In connection with adaptation to swimming and diving, waterfowl have webbing between the toes, and the legs themselves are set far back.On the ground, most waterfowl move slowly and clumsily.The plumage of waterfowl is protected from getting wet mainly by the structure of the feather cover.The dense interweaving of feather and downy beards forms a thick layer with water repellent outer surface. In addition, countless air bubbles enclosed in the thinnest cavities of the plumage layers contribute to water resistance. Lubrication of feathers with secretions of the oil gland is also important for protection against water: it preserves the natural structure, shape and elasticity of the feathers that form a waterproof layer. Detachment storks. The white stork is a large bird with large black wings and long red legs. Storks live among open spaces with sparsely located groups of trees, in places where there are low-lying vast meadows, swamps, and reservoirs. Thanks to its long legs, the stork can go far into the water. By using long fingers with a small membrane between their bases, the stork confidently walks through swampy places

Birds of deserts and steppes are inhabitants of vast open spaces with sparse vegetation. It is difficult to find shelter here, and therefore many birds living in the steppes and deserts have long legs and necks. This allows them to view the area far and see the approach of predators in advance. The birds of the steppes and deserts find their food on the ground, among the vegetation. They have to walk a lot in search of food, and therefore the legs of these birds are usually well developed. Some species do not escape by flying away, but by running away from danger. In these environmental conditions, 2 groups are distinguished:

Running birds: ostriches, bustards, little bustards. They live in packs: they move with the help of their legs (ostriches do not fly at all). They nest and feed on the ground and are of commercial importance;

Fast-flying birds - saja, grouse (neg. grouse). They also include the eagle living in the steppes (negative diurnal predators), which destroys mouse-like rodents. As a result of overfishing and plowing of lands, their numbers have been greatly reduced. Bustard, little bustard, white crane (sterkh), demoiselle crane are listed in the Red Book of Russia. Squad of cranes. In April, they fly high in the sky to a loud cooing. Lined up in triangles, cranes. They return from Africa and South Asia to nesting sites. Most cranes live in wetlands, but demoiselle crane nests in steppe zone European and Asian parts of our country. Immediately after arrival, mating games of cranes begin. They gather in a large circle, in the center of which several couples “dance” to loud trumpet sounds. After a while, the "dancers" stand in the circle of "spectators", giving way to other birds .. Bustard detachment. Bustard is one of the largest and rarest birds. living within our country. Its mass reaches 16 kg. Bustards settle in the steppes. Thanks to good eyesight, they already notice danger from a distance and fly away or run away on their powerful legs. Sometimes the bustard lurks among the sun-bleached grass and then becomes completely invisible due to the protective color of the plumage. Bustards are omnivorous birds: they eat leaves, seeds and shoots of plants, as well as beetles, locusts, lizards, and small mouse-like rodents. The chicks feed mainly on insects. In case of danger, the female pretends to be wounded and distracts the attention of the enemy from the chicks, running away and dragging her wings. At the same time, the chicks hide on the ground.

Forest birds are the largest group. Its representatives have various forms of communication with the forest environment. There are 3 groups:

Arboreal birds climbing trees. They feed and build nests in trees, have short but strong legs, a chisel-shaped thin and long or inwardly curved beak (parrots). According to the nature of nutrition, there can be both granivorous and insectivorous: woodpeckers (negative woodpeckers), tap dance, siskin, goldfinch, crawlers, crossbills, hawfinches (negative passerines);

A group of forest birds. They nest in trees or in thickets of bushes, and catch prey in the air: kestrel, hawk, red-footed falcons (neg. diurnal predators), common cuckoo (neg. cuckoo), eating harmful hairy caterpillars, common nightjar (neg. nightjars), owl, tawny owl , barn owl (neg. owls);

A group of forest birds nesting only on the ground. Food is obtained both on the ground and on trees. These numerous representatives of the order of chickens (pheasant, black grouse, wood grouse, hazel grouse, etc.) are the subject of fishing.

Economic importance of amphibians and reptiles.

Amphibians, feeding on invertebrates and living in a wide variety of places, are of great benefit to gardens, vegetable gardens, fields, forests and hayfields, exterminating pests.

Particularly noteworthy is the fact that land species of amphibians hunt at night, when the vast majority of insectivorous birds are sleeping. The advantage of frogs and especially toads over birds lies in the fact that they do not need special measures to attract them, and, being released into certain areas, remain to live in them.

Amphibians are of certain importance as a food base for some fur-bearing animals. So, in the black polecat and mink, about one third of the food is frogs. The success of the acclimatization of the raccoon dog is associated with the abundance of frogs, which make up more than half of the diet of this species. Many useful birds, such as ducks, cranes, storks, feed on frogs and tadpoles. A number of commercial fish, such as: catfish, pike, perch - in winter, they exist mainly due to frogs. Frogs, feeding on terrestrial invertebrates in summer, gathering for wintering in water bodies, turn out to be an intermediate link there, which expands the food supply of water bodies for fish at the expense of terrestrial forms.

Amphibians can also have a negative meaning. Apparently, the negative role of amphibians is that some species turn out to be natural guardians of such dangerous infections as tularemia.

It should be remembered that frogs, newts and axolotls are widely used as laboratory animals. Laboratories of large educational and scientific institutions consume tens of thousands of frogs a year. Without frogs, the work of biological and medical institutes is unthinkable.

Finally, frogs have some food value. Frog legs are highly regarded in most countries as a gourmet dish. Europe and North. America harvests hundreds of millions of frogs annually.

Ecological groups of amphibians.

Amphibians are given a specific ecological "niche" - they are an important link in the food chains of wet land areas and aquatic biocenoses. Together with birds, amphibians take an active part in maintaining the natural ecological balance.

Sometimes living beings are assigned to different groups, assessing the degree of their "usefulness" for the environment. In fact, there are neither "useful" nor "harmful" species in nature. Each species has its own ecological niche, position in food chains, place in the cycle of substances, etc. Each individual is a carrier of unique genetic information characteristic of its species. There is a close relationship between animal species. At the same time, each of them is endowed with its own usefulness for the biocenosis, which may not always be understood by us. Although representatives of some species may pose a certain danger to various members of the community - plants, animals, humans. This is especially evident when the ecological balance is disturbed (for example, during the "explosive" mass reproduction of insects or pathogens). In those natural biocenoses, which include different kinds amphibians, there are also no absolutely beneficial or harmful insects, birds, amphibians, plants, etc. Everything is an interconnected system whole. At the same time, amphibians play the role of defenders of the plant world. After all, the food objects they need are basically dangerous for the life of many plants, especially with uncontrolled reproduction. At the same time, amphibians practically do not consume the main pollinators of plants. Here, the “wise interrelation of interests” of representatives of flora and fauna is manifested. The ecological niches of amphibians and birds, which make up single biocenoses, are also interconnected.

Regulators of ecological balance

Birds have a fairly wide range of food objects, but it is amphibians that are known as universal plant protectors. An important role of regulators of the ecological balance of amphibians allows them to perform their omnivorous and unpretentiousness. For example, the diet of Russian northern frogs and toads includes locusts, weevils, bed bugs, bark beetles, leaf beetles, and other beetles, including the most dangerous pest- Colorado. Amphibians exterminate large numbers of scoop caterpillars, moths, and slugs. Of great importance is the unpretentiousness of amphibians in terms of nutrition. They are in much greater numbers than birds, able to eat insects with bad smell and taste, hairy caterpillars, invertebrates with a bright, frightening color. The fact is that the body of amphibians is provided with excellent defense mechanisms against poisonous creatures. Therefore, in most cases, their innate life program does not contain a reflex to the bright color of prey, which frightens other animals.

In addition, amphibians have an important hunting feature that allows them to complement each other in this joint activity with birds. After all, birds that feed on insects hunt mainly during the daylight hours and destroy pests that are active during this period. And many amphibians are able to contain the over-reproduction of many species of insects and mollusks by working at dusk and at night when the birds sleep. For example, an adult toad can eat up to 100 insects, their larvae and slugs in one night.

The advantage of cold-blooded amphibians

Of particular importance is the activity of amphibians of various species to curb (together with birds) the excessive reproduction of invertebrate destroyers of vegetation during difficult periods of cold weather and starvation. After all, birds, being warm-blooded animals, cannot starve for a long time. Birds need to constantly maintain their body temperature at 39-410C, and for this they must burn enough food in their "furnaces". With a cold snap, the energy consumption of the bird's body increases dramatically. To keep warm, the birds need to increase their nutrition, but just at this time the insects hide and become inaccessible. Therefore, birds either die from exhaustion, or try to fly to areas with better weather conditions. Even short-term periods of cold snap and lack of food cause especially serious damage to chicks. However, birds have been given an amazing ability to make long-term weather forecasts with great accuracy. In years when unfavorable living conditions are expected, including a decrease in the number of food objects, birds lay fewer eggs than usual. As a result, when warming comes and active reproduction of insects, feathered plant protectors become clearly not enough. This is where all the advantages of the vital activity of cold-blooded amphibians manifest themselves. Having easily survived a temporary cold snap and lack of food, they take revenge when favorable conditions. Amphibians begin to feed intensively, while restraining the excessive reproduction of plant pests.

In the diet of animals

Amphibians are not only food consumers, but they themselves are an object of food. And thus amphibians are included in the general biological cycle. Among amphibians, food objects of various animals are mainly tadpoles and adult frogs. Tadpoles are mainly eaten by fish. The grown frogs are mainly fed by birds, snakes, animals and large fish. After all, these amphibians do not hide in shelters during the daytime. They are fully equipped for active hunting for insects at this particular time. In addition, frogs are not provided with skin secretions with such protective properties as caustic mucus in toads, toads, salamanders, etc. Frogs are consumed by a huge number of animals. First of all, these are many large predatory fish: catfish, pike perch, pike. For them, frogs and tadpoles are quite affordable mass food. Common frogs are the most common fish prey, which, in contrast to the green frog, lack the behavioral mechanism of burrowing into the silt for wintering. Therefore, it turns out to be the food link that expands the diet of fish at the expense of terrestrial food objects. Many birds also feed on frogs, including storks, herons, crows, magpies, rooks, harriers, gulls, terns, and grebes. For some of them, frogs make up a large proportion of their diet. Ornithologists estimate that at least 90 species of birds prey on frogs, 21 on spadefoot and 18 on toads. To a large extent, frogs provide food for snakes. In small quantities, frogs are consumed by hedgehogs, minks, shrews, foxes, and otters. Toads are eaten by raccoons and raccoon dogs, badgers, and polecats. In years when the main food of these animals is scarce, the role of amphibians as food objects increases. Feeding on a variety of invertebrates, amphibians accumulate organic substances in their bodies, which can then be used by larger vertebrates. Thus, the purpose of amphibians is also to support the life of other animals during unfavorable periods at the expense of their lives.

The number of most species of frogs in all habitats intended for them is in a certain balance (despite the participation of various animals in the diet). It is mainly due to the enormous fertility of frogs, which quickly restores the losses incurred. In addition, amphibians are distinguished by the relative longevity of individuals. In that part of amphibians, which was destined to avoid dangers and survive, several generations can exist side by side, regularly giving offspring of the same prolific amphibians.

Man and amphibians

Amphibians are extremely important animals for humans. First, by feeding on small living creatures, amphibians, especially frogs and toads, restrain the mass reproduction of agricultural pests. Thanks to this, they, together with insectivorous birds, are included in the category of crop defenders, friends of gardeners and gardeners. Secondly, amphibians destroy insects - carriers of human diseases, for example, malarial mosquitoes. Thirdly, amphibians are actively used for experiments by many generations of physicians, biologists and scientists of related specialties. They helped make a lot of important scientific discoveries in biology and other sciences, including bionics. In addition, amphibians are surprisingly touching, gentle and often very beautiful creatures. They delight with the phenomenal capabilities of their body, graceful movements and complex behavior. Amphibians, like all living creatures, require a humane attitude of man and his protection. Let's consider these questions in more detail.

"Utility factor" for a person

Living in a wide variety of places and feeding on insects and other invertebrates that are dangerous to plant life, amphibians bring great benefits to gardens, vegetable gardens, fields, forests and meadows (hayfields), and therefore to humans. Among the pests that, with uncontrolled reproduction, are capable of destroying almost the entire crop, insects occupy the first place. And they feed on the vast majority of frogs, toads, tree frogs and salamanders. In addition, these amphibians exterminate a myriad of slugs.

Scientists who studied the nutrition of our domestic amphibians once proposed a fairly simple formula for calculating the utility indicator for a person of one species or another:

V=t, where n is the number of animals eaten harmful to humans, u is the number of beneficial animals, t is the total number of animals eaten (harmful, beneficial and neutral, found in the stomach) and v is the utility factor for humans.

For a general orientation in this matter, the formula gives quite satisfactory results. The “utility factors”, calculated by this formula as a percentage, for some amphibians, the following were obtained:

common newt - 98 lake frog - 50

tree frog - 66 toad - 49

moor frog - 46 crested newt - 11

common frog - 59 Asia Minor frog - 27

spadefoot - 57 pond frog - 18

It should be borne in mind that the beneficial activity of amphibians for humans calculated by this formula is purely utilitarian. She has fluctuations in different time and in their various habitats. And of course, this formula does not reflect the importance of amphibians for ecosystems, biodiversity, etc.

The study of the food assortment of amphibians showed that they mainly consume insects harmful to plants. Due to the fact that in the centers of mass reproduction there are more of them than other insects, in the stomachs of amphibians they make up 80–85% of all food eaten. Moreover, on the ground, insects are hunted mainly by salamanders and frogs. And tropical tree frogs and tree salamanders catch their prey on the branches of trees and shrubs. Grasping insects on the fly helps them with a sticky tongue that accurately hits the target. Tropical copepod frogs are helped by “glider” devices to hunt. Unlike many birds, amphibians are capable of eating "inedible" insect pests with an unpleasant odor, taste and bright protective color. Some amphibians are able to prey on insects and their larvae that are in the ground. Therefore, plants - from roots to crowns - can be fully protected by amphibians. They are recognized as an independent and rather significant role in the extermination of insects harmful to agriculture.

Toads have one important feature - they are the most active consumers of slugs, these nocturnal pests of plants and practically omnivorous animals. Slugs destroy the harvest of rye and wheat, peas and carrots, cabbage and potatoes, and tobacco. It's easier to list the crops they don't eat. Moreover, pests do this from early spring to late autumn, on open ground or penetrating into greenhouses and greenhouses. They are especially harmful at the time of crop ripening, when it is impossible to produce chemical treatment plants. Here, toads show their abilities that are useful to humans. At dusk, choosing a more secluded path, making small dashes, the toads go hunting. The benefits to people of their night hikes are enormous. In the US, a rough estimate of the cost savings brought night after night by toads to farming and forestry. It turned out that this is billions of dollars a year! And annually from each toad the profit is 20 - 30 dollars. The usefulness of toads was highly appreciated in Europe as well. Not without reason, in the 19th century, for example, in Paris there was a special market where gardeners and peasants bought hundreds of toads to release them in vegetable gardens, fields and orchards. In doing so, they saved a huge share of their crops.

After completion of metamorphosis, juveniles, for example, green toads, emerge from the water and are actively involved in hunting. It makes a significant contribution to the destruction of agricultural pests. Of course, young toads mainly consume small living creatures, which adult amphibians do not pay attention to. But the little caterpillar manages to eat a lot of greens before it grows to a size where it becomes "interesting" as a food object for adult animals. Thus, juvenile amphibians enter the ecological niche along with the older ones, preventing the huge damage caused by small plant pests.

Those amphibians that eat disease carriers are of great benefit to humans. In the destruction of mosquito larvae special role belongs to the tritons. The purpose of newts to regulate the reproduction of mosquitoes is due to the fact that the habitat of these amphibians, and most importantly of their predatory larvae, is most often small and stagnant warm water bodies. They are also breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Of particular importance is such a food "addiction" of newts in places of mass reproduction of malarial mosquitoes, carrying people dangerous disease.

"Martyrs of Science"

Both the first observations of schoolchildren in the biology classroom, and the largest studies by biologists, physicians and other scientists are very often associated with the use of frogs. Most of the instruments of experimental biology and medicine are designed for these "martyrs of science." In addition, it was the frog that more than 200 years ago gave rise to the development of one of the most important branches of knowledge - the doctrine of electricity. The frog was also of interest for bionics. The purpose of these studies is to use biological knowledge about the perfect and unique "devices" and "instruments" of living organisms to solve engineering problems and develop technology. For example, an ordinary frog is endowed with an interesting feature. She practically sees only moving objects, which helps the amphibian instantly react and grab prey. At the same time, her eye filters out information about stationary objects and tunes only to a moving target. The study of these features of the frog's eye made it possible to create the retinatron device. It does not react to stationary objects and provides observation of moving objects, such as an aircraft.

In recognition of that invaluable benefit brought by modest amphibians to the development of world science, monuments are even being built to them. One of the most famous is installed in front of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. With the money raised by medical students, a monument was created in Tokyo.

A man inflicts damage on an amphibian tribe

Amphibian tribes cannot be seriously threatened by their traditional enemies. The ecological balance inherent in nature is not violated in a natural way. At the same time, some species of amphibians are on the verge of extinction, which is mainly due to the anthropogenic factor - the rapidly developing human economic activity, as well as the consequences of unreasonable recreation and tourism. Especially seriously observed recently is the decline in the populations of tailless amphibians most useful to us - frogs and toads. But the purpose of these eternal workers is to maintain balance in nature. Therefore, the ever-increasing pace of technological progress, direct and indirect effects

Economic importance and bird conservation

Economic importance of bird hunting

As for the vast and inhabited forest-steppe Trans-Urals, exceptionally rich in reserves of both upland and waterfowl, here, if any and satisfactorily used, then only the "upland" bird; the stocks of waterfowl are used to an insignificant extent; meanwhile, their correct exploitation could give more than one million additional birds of these birds annually. The use of trappers can and should play an important role in the development of bird hunting, which is quite acceptable under planned conditions under state and public control. It should be emphasized, however, that simultaneously with the development of hunting birds, the issues of protecting birds useful in other branches of the national economy should not be forgotten. As noted above, the vast majority of small and even birds of prey exterminate various agricultural pests, which are of great benefit; meanwhile, very little has been done so far in terms of protecting and improving the living conditions of these birds. In this regard, the Urals, in terms of the scope of mass work (in the form of general propaganda, organizing a "day of birds", etc.), lagged far behind the central regions of the Soviet Union. Simultaneously with the protection of useful birds, it is necessary to develop a fight against harmful birds of prey. The number of truly harmful predators, in fact, in each region is small in our country (most birds of prey and owls are erroneously classified as pests). It is necessary to teach the mass hunter to distinguish harmful birds from useful ones, so that he can exterminate only really harmful ones, which will be of great benefit in agriculture, hunting and forestry.

International bird protection is a set of principles and norms of international law aimed at preventing the extermination of all species of useful birds in the wild, as well as. maintenance and restoration of their rare populations. M.o.p. regulated by multilateral and bilateral documents, incl. general agreements on the protection of wild fauna and flora in their natural habitat. The International Convention for the Protection of Birds of 1950 for the first time established the principles of protection against extermination of all species of birds in the wild, with the exception of pest species, which may be deprived of such protection. Regulation of the protection of birds from extermination is carried out according to the convention on the basis of restrictive and prohibitive norms, and the organization of reserves is recognized as the main method of protection. Subsequently adopted with the participation of the Soviet Union, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Principally as Habitats of Waterfowl (1971) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973), and tzh. The Convention on the Protection of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979) and a group of regional treaties have significantly expanded this area of ​​international legal regulation.

Ecological groups of mammals

Mammals have adapted to life in the ground-air, soil and water environments of life, there are flying animals. In various natural and climatic zones, mammals inhabit forests, meadows, steppes, deserts, and mountains. They live along the banks of reservoirs, in rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. According to the way of life, mammals are combined into several ecological groups. Animals of the same ecological group have characteristic features of the structure, life, and behavior. Typically terrestrial mammals inhabit forests and open spaces. They have a proportionally folded strong body, well-developed high limbs, a muscular neck. They move by walking, running and jumping. The signs of the group are most pronounced in fast-running animals. Among land animals there are many herbivorous species - these are deer, horses, antelopes, goats, rams, etc. Mammals that feed on branches and leaves of trees have special adaptations. So, the giraffe has a well-developed neck. This allows him to pluck leaves that are inaccessible to other land animals, to see well and to detect enemies in time. Elephants have a powerful compact body, a massive head and a short neck, offset by a long movable trunk. Predatory animals that lie in wait for prey, for example, a lion, a tiger, a lynx, do not have such long legs as those of those who run. Relatively long legs in predators chasing prey, such as the wolf and cheetah. Jumping mammals - hare, jerboa, kangaroo have long strong hind legs and shortened, weaker front legs. In kangaroos, the weak front legs have lost their support value when landing after a jump. On the other hand, a long tail is developed, on which the animal leans during slow movement, and during large jumps it plays the role of a balancer and a rudder. Land-arboreal mammals live in forests and are associated with tree-spring-shrub vegetation. They make nests in trees and feed both on the ground and in trees. These animals have an elongated, strong and flexible body, shortened limbs, armed with sharp claws.

This group includes pine marten, sable, squirrel, chipmunk. Many small terrestrial-arboreal species have a well-developed tail with long spinous hairs, which facilitates gliding jumps. The flying squirrel has a leathery fold on the sides of the body, which improves gliding capabilities. Soil mammals are adapted to a burrowing lifestyle. Many species spend most of their time underground, rarely appearing on the surface. The body of excavators is short, valky, cervical region inconspicuous, tail reduced. The fur is short, dense, without guard hairs, the legs are short with strong muscles and large claws. The auricles are reduced. Vision is poorly developed, and in some underground animals (for example, in a mole rat), the eyes are hidden under the skin. The sense of smell and touch are well developed in shrews. The mole digs the earth with strong, outward-turning spade-shaped forelimbs and pushes the earth to the surface with its head. The mole rat digs the ground with large, protruding incisors. Flying mammals have fully mastered the air environment - they have adapted to flight. This group includes representatives of the order Chiroptera. Their forelimbs are turned into mobile wings. The flying membrane is stretched between the strongly elongated bones of the hand of the forelimb, the trunk, the hind limb, and even the tail.

In fast-flying animals, for example, in the red evening, the wings are long and narrow; in slow-flying ears, they are wide and blunt. In connection with flight, the pectoral muscles are well developed in bats, which, like in birds, are attached to the sternum keel and wing bones. The bats catch insects in the air. Some of them, like birds, make seasonal migrations: they fly to warm regions for wintering. All bats have well-developed hearing organs with large auricles that provide echolocation. Aquatic and semi-aquatic mammals - cetaceans and pinnipeds - are typical aquatic animals. Whales have completely lost contact with land. They have a streamlined fish-like body, the head merges with the body: the cervical region is absent.

The caudal fin serves as the organ of movement. The forelimbs, modified into flippers, act as rudders. The hind limbs are reduced. The auricles have disappeared, the external auditory canal is closed, the nasal openings are closed with valves, there is no coat. Well developed subcutaneous fat, providing thermal insulation. In connection with feeding on planktonic organisms, baleen whales lost their teeth and developed a special filtering apparatus, consisting of numerous horny plates, the so-called whalebone. Most pinnipeds spend their lives in the water. However, they have not lost touch with the land: they come out onto land, to rookeries, during the breeding season. Pinnipeds have two pairs of flippers that take part in movement in the water. The coat is reduced, although the cubs are born covered with thick fur. A thick layer of subcutaneous fat plays a thermally insulating role.

Mammals leading a semi-aquatic lifestyle belong to various systematic groups and use different foods. However, they have common features in connection with a semi-aquatic lifestyle: the limbs are equipped with swimming membranes, the tail in the water acts as a rudder, the coat is well developed, there is a thick warm undercoat. Animals leading a semi-aquatic lifestyle carefully take care of the wool: they disassemble, comb, lubricate with the oily secretion of the skin glands. Mammals that lead a semi-aquatic lifestyle include the platypus, muskrat, beaver, otter, muskrat, etc. They swim and dive perfectly in water, move freely on land, although they are noticeably inferior to typical land animals in speed. Among terrestrial, soil, aquatic, semi-aquatic and flying animals there are representatives of different orders and families. They have similar adaptive (adaptive) features to similar habitat conditions, they form separate ecological groups.

Less common are larvae that do not have caps - the so-called campodeoid larvae. Such larvae are mainly predators, building special trapping nets from thin cobweb threads. Such networks, having the form of funnels, are located with a wide opening against the current and are attached motionlessly to aquatic plants, stones and other underwater objects.

chrysalis

The larva pupates under water in a case built by it. The pupa has rudiments of wings, very long antennae, large eyes and huge mandibles, with which it destroys the cover of the case. Thin threadlike gills are noticeable on the abdomen. The pupa may be equipped with long swimming legs. At the posterior end of the pupa's body there are long bristles, with the help of which it cleans a hole in the sieve-like cap, which is easily clogged with silt, and thus provides access to fresh water. The opening of the anterior sieve operculum is cleaned with the help of bristles located on the upper lip, and also, perhaps, with the help of elongated jaws. To exit the imago, the pupa floats to the surface, acting like oars with rowing middle legs. Adult insects fly out in about a month.

Classification

Based on the diversity of larvae, two groups of families are distinguished Trichoptera. Group Annulipalpia includes those families of caddis flies whose larvae build nets (serve for catching prey and shelter). Families larvae Rhyacophilidae And Hydrobiosidae do not form larval caps, but the pupa is located inside a dome-shaped structure of mineral fragments. Hydroptilidae- larvae are free-living until the last stage, after which they build a cap, which can be free or attached to the substrate. Inside it, pupation takes place. In larvae of the family Glossosomatidae, the cap is similar to that of other Annulipalpia, however, the larva stretches a transverse thread under the dome, which allows the larva to drag the house. With each new stage, the larva builds a new sheath, and then a new sheath is built for pupation. In this case, the thread is removed and the case is attached to the substrate. family group Intgripalpia build mostly tubular covers. The material for construction and the type of construction are species-specific. The larva is mobile and completes the house with each larval stage.

• Suborder Annulipalpia
  • Hydropsychoidea: Arctopsychidae- Dipseudopsidae - Ecnomidae- †Electralbertidae - Hyalopsychidae - Hydropsychidae - Polycentropodidae - Psychomyiidae- Xiphocentronidae
  • †Necrotaulioidea: Necrotauliidae
  • Philopotamoidea: Philopotamidae - Stenopsychidae
  • Rhyacophiloidea: Glossosomatidae - Hydrobiosidae - Hydroptilidae- †Prorhyacophilidae - Rhyacophilidae
• Suborder Integripalpia
  • Leptoceroidea: Atriplectididae - Calamoceratidae- Kokiriidae - Leptoceridae- Limnocentropodidae - Molannidae - Odontoceridae- Philorheitridae
  • Limnephiloidea: Apataniidae - Brachycentridae - Goeridae - Lepidostomatidae - Limnephilidae- Oeconesidae - Pisuliidae - Rossianidae - †Taymyrelectronidae - Uenoidae
  • Phryganeoidea: †Baissoferidae - †Dysoneuridae - †Kalophryganeidae - Phryganeidae - Phryganopsychidae- Plectrotarsidae
  • Sericostomatoidea: Anomalopsychidae-Antipodoeciidae- Barbarochthonidae - Beraeidae - Calocidae - Chathamiidae - Conoesucidae - Helicophidae - Helicopsychidae- Hydrosalpingidae - Petrothrincidae - Sericostomatidae- Incertae Sedis
  • Tasimioidea: Tasimiidae
  • †Vitimotaulioidea: Vitimotauliidae
• Incertae Sedis Genera: †Conchindusia - †Folindusia - †Indusia - †Molindusia - †Ostracindusia - †Pelindusia - †Piscindusia - †Quinquania - †Scyphindusia - †Secrindusia - †Terrindusia

Notes

Literature

• Holzenthal R. W., Blahnik, R. J., Prather, A. L., and Kjer K. M. Order Trichoptera Kirby 1813 (Insecta), Caddisflies // Linneaus Tercentenary: Progress in Invertebrate Taxonomy. zootaxa./ Zhang, Z.-Q., and Shear, W.A. (Eds) .. - 2007. - T. 1668. - S. 639-698 (1–766).
• Kjer, K. M.; Blahnik, R. J.; Holzenthal, R. W. 2002: Phylogeny of Caddisflies (Insecta, Trichoptera). // Zoologica scripta, 31: 83–91.
• Schmid, F. 1998: Genera of the Trichoptera of Canada and Adjoining or Adjacent United States. - National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa.
• Ward, J. B. 1999: An annotated checklist of the caddis (Trichoptera) of the New Zealand subregion. // Records of the Canterbury Museum, 13: 75–95.
• A. V. MARTYNOV Caddisflies (vol. 1). - Leningrad, publishing house of the Academy of Sciences, 1934.