Strengthening the central government and giving it autocratic features required the appropriate design of the capital of the Russian state. People moved to Moscow from all over the country the best masters. Special bodies appeared that dealt with issues of the architectural appearance of the capital - the City Order, the Order of Stone Affairs. Moscow becomes the center of Russian architecture. New ones appear here architectural styles and directions. Even the most remote cities are guided by the tastes of Moscow.
The appearance of the Moscow Kremlin has changed. Almost all boyar estates were removed from its territory, and artisans and merchants were evicted. The Kremlin became the administrative and spiritual center of the Russian state. Trade and diplomatic missions of foreign countries appeared here, as well as official government institutions - the Printing and Ambassadorial Courts, buildings of orders.
The artistic merits of Russian architecture in the 16th century are especially vivid. manifested itself in church buildings. An outstanding monument of hipped-roof architecture was the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, erected in 1532 in honor of the birth of Vasily III's long-awaited heir - the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.
Rice. 1. Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye ()
The building erected in 1555-1560 is rightfully considered the pinnacle of Russian architecture. on Red (then Torgovaya) Square, in close proximity to the Kremlin, the Intercession Cathedral (it is also called St. Basil's Cathedral, named after the famous Moscow holy fool, buried in one of the chapels). The cathedral, amazing in its beauty, was dedicated to the capture of Kazan by Russian troops; it was built by Russian masters Barma and Postnik. The idea of the temple is simple: just as Moscow united the Russian lands around itself, so the huge central tent unites the colorful diversity of eight separate domes into a single whole.
Rice. 2. Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) ()
Urban construction expanded widely, and fortresses and monasteries were built. Particularly impressive were the fortifications of Smolensk, erected under the leadership of Fyodor Kon. The length of the fortress walls along the perimeter was 6.5 km. There were 38 towers evenly distributed along their entire length. Masons and craftsmen from all over Russia were gathered to build the fortress.
After the conquest of the Kazan Khanate, by royal decree, 200 Pskov craftsmen, led by the famous architects Barma and Shiryai, were sent to Kazan. They created a number of outstanding architectural structures in the city.
Russian painting, as in previous centuries, developed mainly within the framework icon painting and temple painting. The main place where new ideas and painting techniques were born was the Moscow Kremlin.
The largest representative of the Moscow school of painting of the late 15th century. - beginning of the 16th century there was a former prince who became a monk - Dionysius. He painted some of the icons and frescoes for the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. On the icons of Dionysius, saints were depicted framed by genre scenes illustrating individual episodes of their lives. During the reign of Ivan IV, religious painting increasingly included subjects reflecting real historical events. In the middle of the 16th century. In Moscow, a huge, 4 m in size, icon-painting “The Militant Church” was painted, dedicated to the capture of Kazan.
With the formation of a unified state, the need for literate people increased. At the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, it was decided to open schools in Moscow and other cities at churches and monasteries, “so that priests and deacons and all Orthodox Christians in each city would entrust their children to them to learn to read and write.” Special “masters” of non-clerical rank also began to teach literacy, who taught literacy for two years for “porridge and a hryvnia of money.”
The largest event in Russian culture in the mid-16th century. became the emergence printing. It began on the initiative of Tsar Ivan the Terrible and with the support of the church. In 1564, in Moscow at the Printing Yard, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets printed the first Russian dated book. It was called "Apostle". In 1565, “The Book of Hours” was published - the first Russian book for teaching literacy.
In the first half of the 16th century. a circle of people close to Metropolitan Macarius created the famous “Chets Menaia”. “Chetii” in Rus' were books intended for reading, in contrast to church books used during worship. “Mineas” are collections in which all works are divided into months and days in which they are recommended to be read. In the 16th century Sylvester wrote the famous “Domostroy”, which contained instructions on housekeeping, raising children, and the implementation of religious norms and rituals in the family. One of the main ideas of Domostroy was the idea of subordinating the entire life of the state to royal power, and in the family to its head.
The problem of strengthening state power and its authority both within the country and abroad occupied the 16th century. Russian society. This led to the emergence of a new literary genre - journalism. One of the most interesting publicists of the 16th century. was Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. In his petitions addressed to Ivan the Terrible, he proposed reform projects that were supposed to strengthen the autocratic power of the tsar, relying on the nobility. Questions about the nature of royal power and its relationship with its subjects were central to the correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky. Kurbsky outlined his views in “The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow” and messages to Ivan the Terrible.
In the mid-60s. XVI century An unknown author wrote “The Legend of the Kazan Kingdom” (“Kazan History”).
Folk life in the 16th century basically retained the same features. Russian people sincerely professed Christianity and always celebrated Orthodox religious holidays. The most revered holiday was Easter. This holiday was dedicated to the resurrection of Jesus Christ and was celebrated in the spring. It began with a procession. The symbols of the Easter holiday were colored eggs, Easter cakes, and Easter cottage cheese. However, in addition to church holidays Pagan traditions were preserved among the people. Such were the festivities. Christmastide was the 12 days between Christmas and Epiphany. And if the church called for spending these “holy days” in prayers and chants, then according to pagan traditions they were accompanied by peculiar rituals and games (the ancient Romans had the January “calends”, hence the Russian “kolyada”). The Orthodox Church fought against these pagan customs. Thus, the Council of the Hundred Heads in 1551 strictly prohibited “Hellenic madness, games and splashing, the celebration of the calendar and dressing up.”
In the peasant agricultural calendar, almost every day of the year and almost every hour during the day was noted, the appearance of every cloud, rain, snow, and their properties were explained. The use of an agricultural calendar made it possible to carry out agricultural work based on the natural conditions of each specific area.
List of literature on the topic "Russia in the 16th century":
1. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XVI-XVIII centuries - M., Bustard.2003
2. Gumilyov L.N. From Rus' to Russia: Essays on ethnic history. - M., 1991
3. Driving through Muscovy: Russia XVI-XVII centuries. through the eyes of diplomats. - M., 1991
4. Tikhomirov M. N. Russia in the XVI century. - M., 1962
Homework
1. What style dominated in the architecture of the 16th century?
2. What subjects began to be included in religious painting?
3. What influenced the spread of literacy in Russia?
4. What genres developed in the literature of the 16th century?
5. What folk holidays and traditions were celebrated and observed in the 16th century?
Questions
1. How do you understand the statement of the Russian artist I. E. Grabar that St. Basil’s Cathedral is “rather alone in Russian art than typical of it”?
2. What cities and villages would you advise a foreign traveler to visit in order to become better acquainted with the Russian culture of the 16th century, what monuments should his attention be drawn to and why? As in the history of architecture of the 16th century. reflected in the political history of the country, the history of the victories of Russian weapons?
3. What is the main feature of the “Church Militant” icon? How can you explain it?
5. What significance did the beginning of printing have for the development of the country’s culture? How did the Russian state treat books and book wisdom? What books were published and why?
6. What holidays were celebrated in Russia? What innovations in the life, way of life, and clothing of Russians took place in the 16th century? What is this connected with?
Here you can find information about the arrangement of the house, clothing and food of the peasants.
Knowledge of folk life, traditions, and customs gives us the opportunity to preserve historical memory, to find those roots that will nourish new generations of Russians.
A peasant dwelling is a courtyard where residential and outbuildings, a garden and a vegetable garden were built.
The roofs of the buildings were thatched or wooden; often wooden figures of heads of various birds and animals were attached to the roofs.
The buildings themselves were made of wood, mainly pine and spruce. They literally chopped with an axe, but later saws also became known.
For the construction of even the largest buildings, no special foundation was built. But instead, supports were laid in the corners and middles of the walls - stumps, large boulders.
The main buildings of a peasant yard were: a hut and a cage, an upper room, tumbleweeds, a hay barn, a barn, and a shed. A hut is a common residential building. The upper room is a clean and bright building built above the lower one, and here they slept and received guests. The dumps and the hay barn were cold storerooms and served as living quarters in the summer.
The most important component of a peasant home was the Russian stove. They baked bread in it, cooked food, washed, and slept on the upper wall.
The main decoration of the house were images (icons). The icon was placed in the upper corner of the chambers and covered with a curtain - a dungeon.
Wall paintings and mirrors were prohibited Orthodox Church. Only small mirrors were brought from abroad and were components of the women's toilet.
IN home device The Russians had a noticeable custom of covering and covering everything. The floors were covered with carpets, matting, felt, benches and benches were covered with shelf covers, tables were covered with tablecloths.
The houses were illuminated with candles and torches.
The houses of poor and rich people had the same names and structures, differing only in size and degree of decoration.
The cut of the clothes was the same for both kings and peasants.
Men's shirts were white or red, they were sewn from linen and canvas fabric. The shirts were belted low with straps with a weak knot.
The clothes they wore at home were called zipun. It was a narrow, short white dress.
Women's clothing was similar to men's, only longer. The pilot wore a long shirt. It had a slit in the front that fastened with buttons all the way down to the throat.
All women wore earrings and headdresses.
Outerwear The peasants had a sheepskin coat. The sheepskin coats were altered for children.
For footwear, the peasants had bast shoes, shoes made of vine twigs and leather soles, which were tied to the feet with belts.
Peasant cuisine was Russian, national. The best cook was considered to be the one who knew how other housewives cooked. Changes in food were introduced quietly. The dishes were simple and not varied.
According to the Russian custom of sacredly maintaining fasts, the table was divided into two parts: fast and fast, and according to supplies, the dishes were divided into five: fish, meat, flour, dairy and vegetable.
Floury foods included rye bread - the head of the table, various pies, loaves, casseroles, rolls; for fish - fish soup, baked dishes; for meat - side dishes, quick soups, pates and many others.
The drinks were: vodka, wine, juices, fruit drinks, Berezovets, kvass, tea.
The sweets were natural: fresh fruits, fruits cooked in molasses.
I hope that my small contribution to the promotion of folk culture and way of life will partly contribute to the fact that this culture will be preserved, knowledge of it will strengthen the mind and soul of growing citizens and patriots of our Fatherland.
The Mongol conquest threw Rus' far back culturally and economically. Many useful skills were lost and masterpieces of art were destroyed. But after a century, the economy began to revive, a tendency towards the unification of Russian lands appeared, the first victories were won over the invaders, and this could not but affect the culture and living conditions.
Kulikovo field and cultural upsurge
A significant impetus to cultural development was given by the first success in the fight against the Mongols - the victory on the Kulikovo Field. Therefore, the history of the Russian cultural revival after the Mongol attack should be counted from the end of the 14th century. Of course, many heights were never achieved (for example, Kievan Rus showed a much higher level of literacy than in Western Europe, and the new Muscovite Rus' demonstrated a depressing level of illiteracy), but on average the cultural lag caused by the conquest was quickly overcome.
The fight against the invaders contributed to the formation of a national feeling and an understanding of one’s difference from other peoples. At the same time, the developing economy helped familiarize Russians with the traditions and achievements of other countries - foreigners went to Moscow, Russians went to foreign lands.
Cultural revival
The centuries demonstrate significant advances in all major cultural areas. In literature, the end of the 14th century was marked by the appearance of “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” and “Zadonshchina” - works of art inspired by the first successes in the fight against the Mongols. In 1466, the merchant Afanasy Nikitin set off on his Indian journey - as a result, Russian literature was enriched by “Walking across the Three Seas”. The appearance of Domostroy, an original monument of “practical” literature, should be attributed to the 16th century. Polemical literature spread - this includes many heretical writings (Ivan Peresvetov, monk Erasmus, Theodosius Kosy), as well as the legendary correspondence with Kurbsky. Ivan the Terrible in 1564 “sponsored” the creation of Ivan Fedorov’s printing house in Moscow.
Icon of the Holy Trinity by Andrei Rublev
The painting of those times is the tradition of icon painting by Andrei Rublev and Theophanes the Greek (late 14th century). Subsequently, many workshops developed the ideas of these masters.
Stone construction developed, although residential buildings were still built almost exclusively from wood. erected the first stone Kremlin in Moscow in 1367. There were stone fortifications in Novgorod and Tver.
At the time, Russian architecture was influenced by the West - the prince invited Italian masters (Fiorovanti, Solari, Ruffo). The result was the Assumption Cathedral and the Faceted Chamber in the Kremlin, the Archangel Cathedral. In 1555-1561, the most famous Russian temple was built - St. Basil's Cathedral (it was built only by Russian craftsmen).
Insufficient culture of life
Changes in everyday culture proceeded more slowly. “Domostroy” (intended for wealthy householders) gives an accurate idea that the economy of even a rich boyar at that time was almost subsistence. Clothes and shoes were supposed to demonstrate the social status of their owner, and were often extremely uncomfortable (heavy boyar fur coats and tall fur hats, even in summer – not a fiction).
There are very few material and written sources on peasant life, but some conclusions can be drawn. The economy was subsistence, clothes and shoes, a significant part of the utensils were made at home, all of this was of low quality. The huts (even the wealthy ones) did not have chimneys, they were heated “black”, and livestock were kept in them in winter.
A woman in all levels of society was considered a second-class citizen. In rich houses there were “towers” where women lived, and from which they could leave only on specified occasions. The peasant woman did all the work equally with her husband, but at the same time she was not allowed to make decisions.
But Moscow Rus' should not be considered a backward country on these grounds. Living conditions at that time were far from ideal everywhere. Rus' was not an advanced state, ahead of its time, but it fully corresponded to the average level.
The 16th century in Russia is the time of the formation of a centralized system. It was during this period that feudal fragmentation was overcome - a process that characterizes the natural development of feudalism. Cities are growing, the population is increasing, trade and foreign policy relations are developing. Changes of a socio-economic nature lead to inevitable intensive exploitation of peasants and their subsequent enslavement.
The 16th-17th centuries were not easy - this was the period of formation of statehood, the formation of foundations. Bloody events, wars, attempts to protect themselves from the echoes of the Golden Horde and the subsequent Time of Troubles required a strong hand of government and the unity of the people.
Formation of a centralized state
The prerequisites for the unification of Rus' and overcoming feudal fragmentation were outlined back in the 13th century. This was especially noticeable in the Vladimir Principality, located in the northeast. Development was interrupted by the Tatar-Mongol invasion, which not only slowed down the process of unification, but also caused significant damage to the Russian people. The revival began only in the 14th century: restoration Agriculture, building cities, establishing economic ties. Gained more and more weight Muscovy and Moscow, whose territory gradually grew. The development of Russia in the 16th century followed the path of strengthening class contradictions. In order to subjugate the peasants, the feudal lords had to act unitedly, use new forms of political connections, and strengthen the central apparatus.
The second factor that contributed to the unification of the principalities and the centralization of power was the vulnerable foreign policy situation. To fight the foreign invaders and the Golden Horde, it was necessary for everyone to unite. This was the only way the Russians were able to win on the Kulikovo Field and at the end of the 15th century. finally throw off the Tatar-Mongol oppression, which lasted more than two hundred years.
The process of formation of a single state was expressed primarily in the unification of the territories of previously independent states into one great Moscow principality and in a change in the political organization of society and the nature of statehood. WITH geographical point In our opinion, the process was completed by the beginning of the 16th century, but the political apparatus was formed only in its second half.
Vasily III
We can say that the 16th century in Russian history began with the reign of Vasily III, who ascended the throne in 1505 at the age of 26. He was the second son of Ivan III the Great. The Tsar of All Rus' was married twice. For the first time, on a representative of the old boyar family, Solomonia Saburova (in the photo below - facial reconstruction based on the skull). The wedding took place on September 4, 1505, but during 20 years of marriage she never gave birth to an heir. The worried prince demanded a divorce. He quickly received the consent of the church and the boyar duma. Such a case of official divorce followed by exile of the wife to a monastery is unprecedented in the history of Russia.
The second wife of the sovereign was Elena Glinskaya, who came from an old Lithuanian family. She bore him two sons. Widowed in 1533, she literally carried out a coup at court, and Russia in the 16th century for the first time received a ruler, who, however, was not particularly popular with the boyars and the people.
In fact, it was a natural continuation of his father’s actions, which were entirely aimed at centralizing power and strengthening the authority of the church.
Domestic policy
Vasily III advocated the unlimited power of the sovereign. In the fight against the feudal fragmentation of Rus' and its supporters, he actively enjoyed the support of the church. Those who were disliked were easily dealt with by being sent into exile or executed. The despotic character, noticeable even in his youth, was fully manifested. During his reign, the importance of the boyars at court decreased significantly, but the landed nobility increased. When implementing church policy, he gave preference to the Josephites.
In 1497, Vasily III adopted a new Code of Law, based on the Russian Truth, Charter and Judgment Charters, court decisions for specific categories of issues. It was a set of laws and was created with the aim of systematizing and streamlining the rules of law existing at that time and was an important measure on the way to the centralization of power. The Emperor actively supported construction; during his reign, the Archangel Cathedral, the Church of the Ascension of the Lord in Kolomenskoye, new settlements, fortresses and forts were erected. In addition, he actively, like his father, continued to “gather” Russian lands, annexing the Pskov Republic and Ryazan.
Relations with the Kazan Khanate under Vasily III
In the 16th century, or more precisely, in its first half, it is largely a reflection of the internal. The sovereign sought to unite as many lands as possible and subordinate them to the central government, which, in essence, can be considered as the conquest of new territories. Having finished with the Golden Horde, Russia almost immediately went on the offensive against the khanates formed as a result of its collapse. Turkey and the Crimean Khanate showed interest in Kazan, which was of great importance for Rus' due to the fertility of the lands and their favorable strategic location, as well as due to the constant threat of raids. In anticipation of the death of Ivan III in 1505, the Kazan Khan suddenly began a war that lasted until 1507. After several defeats, the Russians were forced to retreat and then make peace. History repeated itself in 1522-1523, and then in 1530-1531. The Kazan Khanate did not surrender until Ivan the Terrible ascended the throne.
Russo-Lithuanian War
The main reason for the military conflict is the desire of the Moscow prince to conquer and take control of all Russian lands, as well as Lithuania’s attempt to take revenge for the previous defeat in 1500-1503, which cost it the loss of 1-3 parts of all territories. Russia in the 16th century, after Vasily III came to power, was in a rather difficult foreign policy situation. Suffering defeat from the Kazan Khanate, she was forced to confront the Principality of Lithuania, which signed an anti-Russian agreement with the Crimean Khan.
The war began as a result of Vasily III's refusal to fulfill the ultimatum (return of lands) in the summer of 1507 after the attack on the Chernigov and Bryansk lands by the Lithuanian army and on the Verkhovsky principalities by the Crimean Tatars. In 1508, the rulers began negotiations and concluded a peace agreement, according to which Lublicz and the surrounding area were returned to the Principality of Lithuania.
War of 1512-1522 became a natural continuation of previous conflicts over territory. Despite the concluded peace, relations between the parties were extremely tense, robberies and clashes on the borders continued. The reason for active action was the death of the Grand Duchess of Lithuania and the sister of Vasily III, Elena Ivanovna. The Principality of Lithuania concluded another alliance with the Crimean Khanate, after which the latter began to carry out numerous raids in 1512. The Russian prince declared war on Sigismund I and moved his main forces to Smolensk. In subsequent years, a number of campaigns were carried out with varying success. One of the largest battles took place near Orsha on September 8, 1514. In 1521, both sides had other foreign policy problems, and they were forced to make peace for 5 years. According to the agreement, Russia received the Smolensk lands in the 16th century, but at the same time refused Vitebsk, Polotsk and Kyiv, as well as the return of prisoners of war.
Ivan IV (the Terrible)
Vasily III died of illness when his eldest son was only 3 years old. Anticipating his imminent death and the subsequent struggle for the throne (at that time the sovereign had two younger brothers Andrei Staritsky and Yuri Dmitrovsky), he formed a “seven-strong” commission of boyars. They were the ones who were supposed to save Ivan until his 15th birthday. In fact, the board of trustees was in power for about a year and then began to fall apart. Russia in the 16th century (1545) received a full-fledged ruler and the first tsar in its history in the person of Ivan IV, known throughout the world as the Terrible. The photo above shows a reconstruction of the appearance based on the shape of the skull.
It is impossible not to mention his family. Historians differ in numbers, naming the names of 6 or 7 women who were considered the king’s wives. Some died mysterious deaths, others were exiled to a monastery. Ivan the Terrible had three children. The eldest (Ivan and Fedor) were born from the first wife, and the youngest (Dmitry Uglitsky) from the last - M.F. Nagoy, who played a big role in the history of the country during the time of troubles.
Reforms of Ivan the Terrible
The domestic policy of Russia in the 16th century under Ivan the Terrible was still aimed at the centralization of power, as well as the construction of important state institutions. To this end, together with the “Chosen Rada,” the tsar carried out a number of reforms. The most significant are the following.
- Organization of the Zemsky Sobor in 1549 as the highest estate-representative institution. All classes were represented in it with the exception of the peasantry.
- The adoption of a new code of laws in 1550, which continued the policy of the previous legal act, and also for the first time legalized a single unit of tax measurement for all.
- Guba and zemstvo reforms in the early 50s of the 16th century.
- Formation of a system of orders, including Petition, Streletsky, Printed, etc.
The foreign policy of Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible developed in three directions: the south - the fight against the Crimean Khanate, the east - the expansion of the borders of the state and the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea.
In the east
After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Astrakhan and Kazan khanates created a constant threat to the Russian lands, the Volga trade route was concentrated in their hands. In total, Ivan the Terrible undertook three campaigns against Kazan, as a result of the last one it was taken by storm (1552). After 4 years, Astrakhan was annexed, in 1557 most of Bashkiria and Chuvashia voluntarily joined the Russian state, and then the Nogai Horde recognized its dependence. Thus ended the bloody story. Russia at the end of the 16th century opened its way to Siberia. Wealthy industrialists, who received letters from the tsar for possession of lands along the Tobol River, equipped a detachment of free Cossacks at their own expense, headed by Yermak.
In the West
In an attempt to gain access to the Baltic Sea, Ivan IV fought the grueling Livonian War for 25 years (1558-1583). Its beginning was accompanied by successful campaigns for the Russians; 20 cities were taken, including Narva and Dorpat, and troops approached Tallinn and Riga. The Livonian Order was defeated, but the war became protracted, as several European states were drawn into it. The unification of Lithuania and Poland into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was of great importance. The situation has changed in reverse side and after a long confrontation in 1582, a truce was concluded for 10 years. Another year later, it was concluded that Russia lost Livonia, but returned all the captured cities except Polotsk.
On South
In the south, the Crimean Khanate formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde was still haunted. The main task of the state in this direction was to strengthen the borders from the raids of the Crimean Tatars. For these purposes, actions were taken to develop the Wild Field. The first abatis lines began to appear, that is, defensive lines from the rubble of the forest, in the intervals of which there were wooden forts (fortresses), in particular, Tula and Belgorod.
Tsar Feodor I
Ivan the Terrible died on March 18, 1584. The circumstances of the royal illness are questioned by historians to this day. His son ascended the throne, having received this right after the death of his eldest son, Ivan. According to Ivan the Terrible himself, he was rather a hermit and faster, more suitable for church service, rather than for reign. Historians are generally inclined to believe that he was weak in health and mind. The new tsar took little part in governing the state. He was under the tutelage first of the boyars and nobles, and then of his enterprising brother-in-law Boris Godunov. The first reigned, and the second ruled, and everyone knew it. Feodor I died on January 7, 1598, leaving no offspring and thus interrupting the Moscow Rurik dynasty.
At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, Russia was experiencing a deep socio-economic and political crisis, the growth of which was facilitated by the protracted Livonian War, the oprichnina and the Tatar invasion. All these circumstances ultimately led to the Time of Troubles, which began with the struggle for the empty royal throne.
LIFE OF A RUSSIAN PEASANT WOMAN INXVI- XVIIFOR CENTURIES
Koronova Liliya Romanovna
student of the Faculty of History and Law of the EI K(P)FU
E-mail: lilia -92@ yandex . ru
Krapotkina Irina Evgenevna
Ph.D. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor EI K(P)FU, Elabuga
The history of everyday life is one of the most promising areas that have been developed in domestic historiography since the end of the 20th century. The topic is relevant against the backdrop of increased activity at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. interest in studying the status of Russian women in modern society, which requires studying and understanding the economic and socio-political position of women in Russia over a long historical period.
According to the first general census of the Russian Empire in 1897, the peasantry was the largest class and made up 77.1% of the population, and peasant women made up 38.9% of the total population of the entire Russian Empire.
What is characteristic of a peasant family of the 16th-17th centuries is that the spirit of mutual assistance reigned in it; responsibilities were strictly distributed. The authority of family life was very high among the people.
A Russian peasant family of the 16th century consisted of an average of 15-20 people. It was a patriarchal family in which three or four generations of relatives lived together. However, already in the 17th century there were no more than 10 people in families, representatives of only two generations.
Peasant marriage was concluded for economic reasons: the feelings or desires of the young were not taken into account - the landowner could marry the serfs at his own discretion. In addition, it was not common among the people for young men and girls to marry themselves.
When choosing a bride, preference was given to healthy and hardworking girls - this was due to the fact that after marriage, housekeeping, raising children, and working in the garden and field fell on women’s shoulders. Girls who did needlework had a greater chance of getting married successfully.
In the 16th-17th centuries people entered into marriage very early - girls from 12 years old, and boys from 15. There was also a ban on marriages with relatives up to the sixth generation and with people of other faiths. One could enter into marriage no more than three times, and “Stoglav” speaks about this: “The first marriage is law, the second is forgiveness, the third is a crime, the fourth is wickedness, since the life of a swine is.”
The creation of a new family was necessarily accompanied by a wedding celebration. A Russian wedding contained two elements: Christian (wedding) and folk ("fun"). Weddings were usually held in the fall or winter - this was the most good timing, since all agricultural work was completed. Before the wedding, there was always matchmaking, during which the bride’s parents decided whether they should marry their daughter to this groom. If they agreed, then a “conspiracy” took place: the groom and his father came to the bride’s parents’ house and the parties agreed on wedding expenses, timing, the size of the bride’s dowry and the groom’s gifts. Having come to a common decision, they began preparing for the wedding.
“Domostroy” taught parents to collect a dowry for their daughter from birth, saving “from all profits.” The dowry included pieces of linen, clothes, shoes, jewelry, dishes - all this was put into a box or chest.
After all the preparations were completed, the wedding took place at the agreed time. A peasant wedding of the 16th-17th centuries was accompanied by many rituals: scratching the head with a comb dipped in honey, putting the hair under a kika, showering the newlyweds with hops, treating them to bread and salt - these rituals were aimed at attracting happiness in family life to the newlyweds. However, there was a custom that determined the woman’s future position in the family: the groom put a whip in one of his boots and a coin in the other. The bride’s task was to remove the boots from the groom’s feet one by one; if the boot with the coin came first, then she was considered lucky and her family life was happy, and if the boot with the whip came first, then the husband demonstratively hit his wife with it - thus the husband showed the nature of the future relationship in family .
The position of a married peasant woman in the 16th-17th centuries was freer than that of women of the upper classes: she could freely leave the house to do household chores.
Peter Petrey notes that peasant women worked in the fields and at home along with their husbands. At the same time, the woman had other things to do, such as cooking, washing, needlework, that is, making clothes for all family members, and they also carried firewood and water to the hut. In addition, the foreigner notes that husbands often beat their wives.
However, the woman had great authority in the family. It especially increased after the birth of a boy - this was due to the allotment of land only to men. Peasant women of the 16th-17th centuries were constantly busy with business, even during pregnancy, and therefore childbirth could take place anywhere - in a field, in a hut or in a stable. In Russian medieval society, the hospital was replaced by a bathhouse and, if possible, they tried to give birth there. Domostroy ordered that children be taught respect for their parents. The child was taught an appropriate craft with early age. The mother taught her daughter how to run a household and do needlework from an early age: at the age of 6 she began to master the spinning wheel, at the age of 10 - the sickle and sewing. At the age of 14, girls already knew how to weave, mow hay and bake bread. At the age of 15, peasant girls worked in the field on an equal basis with adults.
In their free time from field and household work, women were engaged in weaving. I. E. Zabelin writes that linen business in peasant farming was exclusively in women's hands. In addition, sewing and spinning were also an activity for women and girls on long winter evenings. Sewing shirts was a very troublesome task: the preparation of flax fiber took place in the summer, then it was soaked for several weeks, then the stems were crushed, ruffled and combed with combs - the result was raw material for spinning. Having finished spinning, the peasant women wove canvas; for this, a loom was brought into the house from the barn. In the summer, when the linen was woven, it was whitewashed in the sun, spread out on a meadow. Only after all this was the canvas ready for cutting and sewing. In the 16th-17th centuries, girls did needlework, gathered together in the light of a torch; evenings were spent in conversations.
Since ancient times, clothing was intended not only to hide nakedness, but also to emphasize a person’s wealth. In addition, it was believed that clothing was designed to ward off evil spirits.
Thanks to the information from foreign guests, it is possible to create a description of the outfits of Russian peasant women. The clothing of men and women was very similar; It was not pleasing to the eye and was sewn at home. Peasants worked in old clothes Having finished their work, they changed into casual clothes, and on holidays, to church they put on smart clothes. Clothes were often inherited, carefully stored in cages and chests and cleaned after each wear. The main item of clothing in the 16th-17th centuries was a shirt, made from wool fabric, the so-called hair shirt, and linen or hemp, but due to the complexity of the manufacturing technology, linen shirts were less common.
According to Russian medieval mores, a woman was not allowed to emphasize her figure, so the shirt had a loose fit, did not lie close to the body and reached the knees. Since the 17th century, they began to wear a sundress over a shirt, that is, a sleeveless dress that fit the chest and widened downwards or across the skirt - a blue or black woolen skirt with a decorated bottom.
In the clothing of peasants until the 16th-17th centuries, the belt played the role of a talisman, but by this period this meaning was lost and it became simply a traditional part of the costume.
In the 16th-17th centuries, special attention was paid to women's headdresses, since there was a clear distinction between girls' and women's hats. Before marriage, girls were allowed to bare their heads; after marriage, this was considered indecent behavior. Girls wore bandages - decorated strips of fabric that wrapped around their heads with a hoop, "nakosniki" - decorations on a braid, and married women- volosniki (household attire), podubrusniki (soft hats worn with an ubrus or scarf), ubrus (festive attire), kokoshniks (worn from marriage to the birth of the first child and on holidays) or kiki, that is, they twisted their hair and hid it them under the cap.
Peasants' outerwear was made from sheep skin, which had a specific smell. On the feet of the peasant women were bast shoes, which were made on their own farm from bast mixed with pieces of fur or coarse cloth. In winter, felt boots and woolen socks were worn. There were no stockings - they were replaced by pieces of linen that were used to wrap the legs.
It is typical for the peasants that they always kept their elegant dresses clean and stored in chests, taking them out only on holidays and for going to church. Often items of clothing were passed down by inheritance.
Women of the peasant class of the 16th-17th centuries could not afford to purchase expensive items of jewelry, so clothes were decorated with embroidery.
The girl in advance began to make clothes that would be her dowry, since this required a very long and painstaking work. For a wedding, most often the bride wore a beautiful, that is, red dress.
I would like to note that the peasant women did not care about grace, taste or combination of colors. All the clothes were made by hand and therefore they were treated very carefully, new clothes were put on in exceptional cases and, having taken care of their safety, they were put back into the chests where they were stored. In the 16th-17th centuries, clothes were worn until they became completely unusable. Another feature of Russian peasant clothing in the period under review is that there were no clothes made specifically for children - they were forced to wear adult clothes, and if clothes were sewn on them, then “for growth”.
In other words, the clothes of a Russian peasant woman of the 16th-17th centuries did not differ in a variety of forms and matter, so they tried to decorate them with embroidery and other methods. The main purpose of clothing was protection from the cold and covering nudity - and homespun clothing coped with this.
The peasant table of the 16th-17th centuries was not very diverse and was based on custom. The basis of the diet was black bread, cabbage soup, porridge and kvass; many dishes were similar to each other.
“Domostroy” advised the housewife to take an interest in the tricks of cooking from “good wives.” The nutrition of the peasants was closely connected not only with religion (strict observance of fasts), but also with what the peasant farms themselves produced.
Every Orthodox Christian attached special importance to observing fasts in the 16th-17th centuries. For this reason, the table of the Russian peasant was divided into fast and fast (meat-eater). During fasting days the consumption of meat and dairy products was prohibited, but on meat-eating days all this was allowed. IN Orthodox calendar There were four main multi-day and many one-day posts. Thus, the number of fasting days in total took about 200 calendar days. In addition to major fasts, Wednesday and Friday throughout the year, with the exception of Christmastide and continuous weeks, were also fast days. Religious norms and "Domostroy" regulated the use of certain products during the four main posts.
The first was Great Lent, which lasted 40 days, lean bread, fish, porridge with it, porridge from peas, dried and boiled mushrooms, cabbage soup, pancakes, jelly, pies with jam, onions, peas, turnips, mushrooms , cabbage
The next was Peter's fast, which began a week after Trinity Day and ended on Peter's Day, that is, on July 12. During this fast, Orthodox peasants ate fish, fish soup seasoned with saffron, onions and garlic, pies with millet and peas, mushrooms, cabbage soup.
Next came the Assumption Fast, which lasted from August 1 to August 14. At this time, fish food was served at the table: sauerkraut with fish, fish seasoned with garlic, in gravy with seasonings, fish jellies, fish soup, fish balls, pastries, sour pies with peas or fish.
And the final major post was Christmas, which lasted 6 weeks from November 12 until the Nativity of Christ. Here, the peasants of the 16th-17th centuries ate boiled and stewed fish seasoned with garlic and horseradish, fish jelly, fish soup, loaves. At the end of the Nativity Fast, peasants tried to serve dishes made from the meat of piglets or ducklings on the festive table.
The largest one-day fasts are the day of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross and Christmas Eve. On these days, grain porridge, peas, baked turnips, cabbage soup and rassolnik were served.
The basis of the peasant diet was rye bread, and baked goods made from wheat flour were placed on the table only on major holidays. Not a single meal was complete without bread. Moreover he played important role and in various rituals: religious (prosphora for communion, Easter cakes), wedding (the newlyweds were greeted with “bread and salt”), folk (pancakes for Maslenitsa, gingerbread for welcoming spring).
Bread was baked once a week in a special wooden tub- a kneading bowl that was rarely washed because it was constantly in use. Before putting the dough, the housewife rubbed the walls of the tub with salt, then poured it warm water. In the peasant economy of the 16th-17th centuries, a piece of dough left over from previous baking was used for sourdough. Next, add flour and mix thoroughly and leave overnight in a warm place. The housewife kneaded the dough that had risen in the morning until it began to lag behind both her hands and the walls of the kneading bowl. After which the dough was again put in a warm place overnight, and kneaded again in the morning. The dough was now shaped and placed in the oven. The baked bread was stored in special wooden bread bins. A woman who knew how to bake delicious bread was especially respected in the family. In lean years, peasants were forced to add quinoa, tree bark, ground acorns, nettles and bran to flour, as a result of which the bread acquired a bitter taste.
In the 16th-17th centuries, peasants baked not only bread from flour, but also pies, pancakes, pancakes, gingerbread, but all this was present exclusively on the festive table. Pancakes can be considered the most popular flour dish: they were cooked for Shrove Tuesday, fed a woman in labor and commemorated the deceased. Next came pies - they were prepared from yeast, unleavened and puff pastry, and they could be baked in oil (spun) and without it in the hearth of the oven (hearth). The filling for pies was eggs, fruits and berries, meat and fish, cottage cheese, vegetables, mushrooms, cereals. Another flour dish of the Russian peasant festive table There were gingerbread cookies of different shapes. When preparing the dough, honey and spices were added to it - hence the name. Kalachis were baked from a mixture of rye and wheat flour.
In the peasant environment of the 16th-17th centuries, cabbage soup and porridge were widely used, and any stew was called cabbage soup. Porridges were cooked from cereals in milk or water with the addition of butter. Kashi was an attribute of many folk rituals, for example, it was boiled for christenings, weddings and commemorations. If a woman knew how to cook tasty cabbage soup and bake bread, then this was already a reason to consider her a good housewife. Shchi was prepared from fresh and sour cabbage, often with the addition of turnips and beets. In general, turnips were considered second bread. Cabbage soup was cooked both in meat broth and simply in water.
In the fast days, on the Russian medieval peasant table, one could often find milk soups and cereals from various cereals, flavored with butter or bacon, cheeses, cottage cheese, sour cream and meat dishes. There was plenty of meat on Russian soil, but the peasants ate little of it; each type of meat was supplemented with garden crops (turnips, garlic, onions, cucumbers, peppers, radishes). From spring to late autumn, meat dishes were prepared mainly from lamb; in winter - from beef (since a large amount of meat did not spoil in the cold), before Christmas - from salted or smoked pork.
However, not everything on the peasant table was grown by the peasant family itself. Ukha, made from river fish caught on communal lands, was widespread. The fish was also consumed salted, boiled, smoked and used to prepare cabbage soup, pies, cutlets, and served with buckwheat, millet and other cereals. Poultry dishes (raised at home or caught on the hunt) were well seasoned with horseradish and vinegar.
A special feature of Russian table dishes is that they were richly seasoned with onions, garlic, pepper, mustard and vinegar, but peasants could rarely afford salt due to its high cost.
The most common drinks among peasants of the 16th-17th centuries were kvass, fruit drink, and in April - Berezovets, that is, birch sap. Beer, honey, and vodka were also widely used.
Kvass drinks were available to many, and many dishes could be prepared on its basis, for example, okroshka, beetroot soup, and tyuryu. A good housewife knew how to prepare a wide variety of kvass: from barley or rye malt, from honey and berries (cherries, bird cherry, raspberries, cranberries) or fruits (apples, pears). In addition, kvass, like cabbage, was an excellent means of preventing diseases such as scurvy. Beer was brewed from barley, oats, rye and wheat. The original and best Russian drink, famous among foreigners, was mead; all travelers unanimously recognized his dignity. Honey was brewed from berries (raspberries, currants, cherries, lingonberries, bird cherry), with yeast or hops.
In the 17th century, vodka appeared and became widespread among the peasantry. Typically, Russian vodka was made from rye, wheat or barley, but there was an exception - this was women's vodka, which was made with the addition of molasses or honey, which made it sweet. In addition, when making vodka, they often infused various spices (cinnamon, mustard) and aromatic herbs (mint, St. John's wort, juniper) and made liqueurs with various berries.
Alcoholic drinks were widespread - they were usually consumed on various holidays and occasions, but foreign travelers note that drunkenness was a common occurrence among the Russian people in the 16th-17th centuries. “Domostroy” forbade women from drinking intoxicating drinks, but Jacques Margeret notes that women and girls often indulged in drunkenness.
Among the peasants, it was believed that food had to be earned, so they rarely had breakfast. A peasant family of the 16th-17th centuries rarely managed to dine together: during lean times they ate right in the field in order not to waste time.
Based on the above, we can say that the food culture of peasants of the 16th-17th centuries was fully dependent on religious fasts and agricultural products. The daily diet of the peasants was extremely unpretentious and consisted of cereals, vegetables (such as turnips, cabbage, cucumbers), meat and fish, that is, their meals were mostly simple, due to the fact that they ate products that were grown on their own plot .
Summing up, I would like to note that a Russian woman of the 16th-17th centuries provided full support and assistance to her husband, she worked on an equal footing with him; in addition, she was engaged in raising children, sewing clothes and cooking. The peasant family was large, and the incomes were small, as a result of which the woman could not afford to buy clothes - everything was produced on the farm itself. The situation was also the same with peasant table- They were forced to give most of what they produced to the landowners. Thus, the peasant family was very close-knit, and the position of a woman in the family depended on her own skills.
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