Strengthening the central government, giving it autocratic features required the appropriate design of the capital of the Russian state. From all over the country moved to Moscow the best masters. Special bodies appeared that dealt with the issues of the architectural appearance of the capital - the City Order, the Order of Stone Affairs. Moscow becomes the center of Russian architecture. New ones appear here architectural styles and directions. Even the most remote cities are guided by the tastes of Moscow.
The appearance of the Moscow Kremlin has changed. Almost all boyar estates were withdrawn from its territory, artisans and merchants were evicted. The Kremlin became the administrative and spiritual center of the Russian state. Trade and diplomatic missions of foreign states appeared here, as well as official state institutions - the Printing and Ambassadorial Courts, buildings of orders.
The artistic merits of Russian architecture in the 16th century are especially bright. appeared in church buildings. An outstanding monument of tent architecture was the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, erected in 1532 in honor of the birth of the long-awaited heir to Vasily III - the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.
Rice. 1. Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye ()
The pinnacle of Russian architecture is considered to be erected in 1555-1560. on Red (then Torgovaya) Square, in the immediate vicinity of the Kremlin, the Pokrovsky Cathedral (it is also called St. Basil's Cathedral, after the famous Moscow holy fool, buried in one of the aisles). Amazing in its beauty, the cathedral was dedicated to the capture of Kazan by Russian troops, it was built by Russian masters Barma and Postnik. The idea of the temple is simple: just as Moscow united the Russian lands around itself, so the huge central tent unites the colorful variety of eight separate domes into a single whole.
Rice. 2. Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) ()
Urban construction was widely developed, fortresses and monasteries were built. Particularly impressive were the fortifications of Smolensk, erected under the leadership of Fyodor Kon. The length of the fortress walls along the perimeter was 6.5 km. Throughout their length, 38 towers were evenly placed. Masons and craftsmen from all over Russia were gathered for the construction of the fortress.
After the conquest of the Kazan Khanate, by royal decree, 200 Pskov masters were sent to Kazan, headed by the famous architects Barma and Shiryai. They created a number of outstanding architectural structures in the city.
Russian painting, as in previous centuries, developed mainly within the framework of icon painting and church painting. The main place where new ideas and techniques of painting were born was the Moscow Kremlin.
The largest representative of the Moscow school of painting of the late XV century. - early 16th century there was a former prince who became a monk, Dionysius. He painted part of the icons and frescoes for the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. On the icons of Dionysius, the saints were depicted framed by genre scenes illustrating individual episodes of their lives. During the reign of Ivan IV, subjects reflecting real historical events were increasingly included in religious painting. In the middle of the XVI century. in Moscow, a huge, 4 m in size, icon-picture "Militant Church", dedicated to the capture of Kazan, was painted.
With the formation of a single state, the need for literate people increased. At the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551, it was decided to open schools in Moscow and other cities at churches and monasteries, “so that priests and deacons and all Orthodox Christians in every city give them their children for the teaching of reading and writing and the teaching of book writing.” Special “masters” of non-clerical rank also began to teach literacy, who taught literacy for two years for “porridge and a hryvnia of money”.
The largest event of Russian culture in the middle of the XVI century. was the emergence typography. It began at the initiative of Tsar Ivan the Terrible and with the support of the church. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets printed the first Russian dated book at the Printing House in Moscow. It was called "Apostle". In 1565, The Book of Hours was published - the first Russian book for teaching literacy.
In the first half of the XVI century. a circle of people close to Metropolitan Macarius created the famous "Father Menaion". "The Fourth" in Rus' was called books intended for reading, in contrast to church books used in worship. "Menaias" are collections where all the works are distributed according to the months and days in which they are recommended to be read. In the XVI century. Sylvester wrote the famous Domostroy, which contained instructions on housekeeping, raising children, and observing religious norms and rituals in the family. One of the main ideas of "Domostroy" was the idea of subordinating the entire life of the state to the royal power, and in the family - to its head.
The problem of strengthening state power, its authority both within the country and abroad, occupies in the 16th century. Russian society. This led to the emergence of a new literary genre - journalism. One of the most interesting publicists of the XVI century. was Ivan Semyonovich Peresvetov. In his petitions addressed to Ivan the Terrible, he proposed reform projects that were supposed to strengthen the autocratic power of the tsar, relying on the nobility. Questions about the nature of royal power and its relationship with subjects were the main ones in the correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky. Kurbsky outlined his views in The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow and messages to Ivan the Terrible.
In the mid 60s. 16th century An unknown author wrote "The Legend of the Kingdom of Kazan" ("Kazan History").
folk life in the 16th century basically kept the same features. Russian people sincerely professed Christianity and always celebrated Orthodox religious holidays. The most revered holiday was Easter. This holiday was dedicated to the resurrection of Jesus Christ and was celebrated in the spring. It began with a procession. The symbols of the Easter holiday were painted eggs, Easter cakes, cottage cheese Easter. However, apart from church holidays pagan traditions were preserved among the people. Such were the festivities. Christmastide was the 12 days between Christmas and Epiphany. And if the church called for these “holy days” to be spent in prayers and chants, then according to pagan traditions they were accompanied by peculiar rituals and games (the ancient Romans had the January “calends”, hence the Russian “carols”). The Orthodox Church fought against these pagan customs. Thus, the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551 strictly forbade "Hellenic demonic possession, games and splashing, celebrating calendars and dressing up."
In the peasant agricultural calendar, almost every day of the year and almost every hour during the day was noticed, the appearance of every cloud, rain, snow, and their properties were explained. The use of the agricultural calendar made it possible to carry out agricultural work based on the natural conditions of each specific area.
References on the topic "Russia in the XVI century":
1. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XVI-XVIII centuries - M., Bustard.2003
2. Gumilyov L. N. From Rus' to Russia: Essays on ethnic history. - M., 1991
3. Passing through Muscovy: Russia XVI-XVII centuries. through the eyes of diplomats. - M., 1991
4. Tikhomirov M. N. Russia in the XVI century. - M., 1962
Homework
1. What style dominated the architecture of the 16th century?
2. What subjects began to be included in religious painting?
3. What influenced the spread of literacy in Russia?
4. What genres developed in the literature of the 16th century?
5. What folk holidays and traditions were celebrated and observed in the 16th century?
Questions
1. How do you understand the statement of the Russian artist I. E. Grabar that St. Basil’s Cathedral is “rather lonely in Russian art than typical of it”?
2. What cities and villages would you advise a foreign traveler to visit in order to get better acquainted with the Russian culture of the 16th century, what monuments should he pay attention to and why? As in the history of architecture of the XVI century. reflected the political history of the country, the history of the victories of Russian weapons?
3. What is the main feature of the "Church Militant" icon? How can you explain it?
5. What is the importance for the development of the country's culture had the beginning of printing? How did the Russian state treat books and bookish wisdom? What books are being published and why?
6. What holidays were celebrated in Russia? What innovations in the life, everyday life, clothing of Russians take place in the 16th century? What is it connected with?
Here you can find information about home improvement, clothes and food of peasants.
Knowledge of people's way of life, traditions, and customs gives us the opportunity to preserve historical memory, to find those roots that will nourish new generations of Russians.
A peasant dwelling is a courtyard where residential and outbuildings, a garden and a kitchen garden were built.
The roofs of the buildings were thatched or wooden, often wooden figures of heads of various birds and animals were attached to the roofs.
The buildings themselves were built of wood, mostly pine and spruce. Dm and in the literal sense were chopped with an ax, but later saws also became known.
For the construction of even the largest buildings, a special foundation was not built. But instead of it, supports were laid in the corners and middles of the walls - stumps, large boulders.
The main buildings of the peasant household were: “a hut and a cage”, a room, tumblers, a hay, a barn, a barn. The hut is a common residential building. The upper room is a clean and bright building, built on top of the lower one, and here they slept and received guests. Povalushki and sennik - cold storerooms, in the summer they were living quarters.
The most important component of the peasant house was the Russian stove. They baked bread in it, cooked food, washed themselves, and slept on the upper wall.
Icons were the main decoration of the house. The images were placed in the upper corner of the chambers and covered with a curtain - a torture chamber.
Wall paintings and mirrors were banned Orthodox Church. Only small mirrors were brought from abroad and were part of the women's toilet.
IN home device the Russians had a noticeable custom to cover and cover everything. The floors were covered with carpets, matting, felts, benches and benches with benches, tables with tablecloths.
The houses were lit with candles and torches.
The houses of poor and rich people had the same names, structures, differed only in size and degree of decoration.
According to the cut, the clothes were the same for both the kings and the peasants.
Men's shirts were white or red, they were sewn from linen and canvas. The shirts were belted low with straps in a weak knot.
The clothes worn at home were called zipun. It was a narrow, short white dress.
Women's clothes were similar to men's, only they were longer. A flyer was worn over a long shirt. It had a slit in the front that fastened with buttons all the way to the throat.
All women wore earrings and headdresses.
Outerwear the peasants had a sheepskin coat. Sheepskin coats were changed for children.
Of the shoes, the peasants had bast shoes, shoes made of twigs and leather soles, which were tied to the foot with straps.
Peasant cuisine was Russian, national. The best cook was the one who knew how other housewives cook. Changes in food were introduced imperceptibly. The dishes were simple and varied.
According to the custom of the Russians to keep the posts holy, the table was divided into two parts: modest and lean, and according to supplies, the food was divided into five: fish, meat, flour, dairy and vegetable.
The floury ones included rye bread - the head of the table, various pies, loaves, casseroles, rolls; to fish - fish soup, baked dishes; for meat - side dishes, quick soups, pates and many others.
The drinks were: vodka, wine, juices, fruit drinks, berezovets, kvass, tea.
Sweets were natural: fresh fruits, fruits cooked in molasses.
I hope that my small contribution to the promotion of folk culture and way of life will partly help to ensure that this culture is preserved, knowledge of it will strengthen the mind and soul of the growing citizens and patriots of our Fatherland.
The Mongol conquest pushed Rus' back culturally and economically. Many useful skills were lost, masterpieces of art were destroyed. But after a century, the economy began to revive, there was a tendency to unite the Russian lands, the first victories were won over the invaders, and this could not but affect the culture and living conditions.
Kulikovo field and cultural upsurge
A significant impetus to cultural development was given by the first success in the fight against the Mongols - the victory at the Kulikovo field. Therefore, the history of the Russian cultural revival after the Mongol attack should be counted from the end of the 14th century. Of course, many heights were never reached (for example, Kievan Rus showed a much higher level of literacy than in Western Europe, and the new, Muscovite Rus, showed a depressing level of illiteracy), but on average, the cultural lag caused by the conquest was quickly overcome.
The fight against the invaders contributed to the formation of a national feeling, an understanding of their difference from other peoples. At the same time, the developing economy helped Russians to get acquainted with the traditions and achievements of other countries - foreigners went to Moscow, Russians went to foreign lands.
cultural revival
The centuries show significant advances in all major cultural fields. In literature, the end of the 14th century is marked by the appearance of "The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev" and "Zadonshchina" - works of art inspired by the first successes in the fight against the Mongols. In 1466, the merchant Afanasy Nikitin set off on his Indian journey - as a result, Russian literature was enriched with "Journey Beyond the Three Seas". By the 16th century, the appearance of Domostroy, an original monument of “practical” literature, should be attributed. Polemical literature was circulating - many heretical writings (Ivan Peresvetov, the monk Erasmus, Theodosius Kosoy), as well as the legendary correspondence with Kurbsky, should be attributed to it. Ivan the Terrible in 1564 "sponsored" the creation of Ivan Fedorov's printing house in Moscow.
Icon of the Holy Trinity by Andrei Rublev
The painting of those times is the tradition of icon painting by Andrei Rublev and Theophanes the Greek (late 14th century). In the future, many workshops developed the ideas of these masters.
Stone construction developed, although residential buildings were still built almost exclusively from wood. erected the first stone Kremlin in Moscow in 1367. There were stone fortifications in Novgorod and Tver.
At one time, Russian architecture was influenced by the West - the prince invited Italian masters (Fiorovanti, Solari, Ruffo) to his place. The result was the Assumption Cathedral and the Faceted Chamber in the Kremlin, the Archangel Cathedral. In 1555-1561, the most famous Russian temple was built - St. Basil's Cathedral (it was built only by Russian masters).
Insufficient culture of life
Changes in everyday culture were slower. "Domostroy" (intended for wealthy householders) gives an accurate idea that the economy of even a wealthy boyar at that time was almost subsistence. Clothes and shoes were supposed to demonstrate the social status of their owner, and were often characterized by extreme inconvenience (heavy boyar fur coats and tall fur hats, even in the summer - not a fiction).
There are very few material and written sources on peasant life, but some conclusions can be drawn. The economy was natural, clothes and shoes, a significant part of the utensils were made at home, all this was of poor quality. The huts (even the wealthy ones) did not have chimneys, they were heated "in a black way", and cattle were also kept in them in winter.
A woman in all walks of life was considered a second-class person. In rich houses there were "terems" where women lived, and from which they could only leave on specified occasions. The peasant woman performed all the work on a par with her husband, but at the same time she did not say to make decisions.
But on these grounds Muscovite Rus' should not be considered a backward country. Living conditions at that time were far from ideal everywhere. Rus' was not an advanced state that was ahead of its time, but it fully corresponded to the average level.
The 16th century in Russia is the time of the formation of a centralized one. It was during this period that feudal fragmentation was overcome - a process that characterizes the natural development of feudalism. Cities are growing, the population is increasing, trade and foreign policy ties are developing. Changes in the socio-economic nature lead to the inevitable intensive exploitation of the peasants and their subsequent enslavement.
The 16-17th century is not easy - this is the period of the formation of statehood, the formation of the foundations. Bloody events, wars, attempts to protect themselves from the echoes of the Golden Horde and the Time of Troubles that followed them demanded a tough hand of government, uniting the people.
Formation of a centralized state
The prerequisites for the unification of Rus' and overcoming feudal fragmentation were outlined as early as the 13th century. This was especially noticeable in the Vladimir principality, located in the northeast. The development was interrupted by the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols, who not only slowed down the process of unification, but also caused significant damage to the Russian people. The revival began only in the 14th century: the restoration Agriculture, building cities, establishing economic ties. Gained more and more weight Muscovy and Moscow, whose territory gradually grew. The development of Russia in the 16th century followed the path of strengthening class contradictions. In order to subdue the peasants, the feudal lords had to act in unison, use new forms of political ties, and strengthen the central apparatus.
The second factor that contributed to the unification of the principalities and the centralization of power was a vulnerable foreign policy position. To fight against foreign invaders and the Golden Horde, it was necessary for everyone to rally. Only in this way were the Russians able to win on the Kulikovo field and at the end of the 15th century. finally throw off the Tatar-Mongol oppression, which lasted more than two hundred years.
The process of formation of a single state was expressed primarily in the unification of the territories of previously independent states into one great Moscow principality and in a change in the political organization of society, the nature of statehood. WITH geographic point From the point of view, the process was completed by the beginning of the 16th century, but the political apparatus took shape only by the second half of it.
Vasily III
We can say that the 16th century in the history of Russia began with the reign of Vasily III, who ascended the throne in 1505 at the age of 26. He was the second son of Ivan III the Great. The Sovereign of All Rus' was married twice. For the first time on a representative of the old boyar family, Solomonia Saburova (in the photo below - facial reconstruction from the skull). The wedding took place on 09/04/1505, however, for 20 years of marriage, she never bore him an heir. The worried prince demanded a divorce. He quickly received the consent of the church and the boyar duma. Such a case of an official divorce with the subsequent exile of the wife to a monastery is unprecedented in the history of Russia.
The second wife of the sovereign was Elena Glinskaya, descended from an old Lithuanian family. She bore him two sons. Having been widowed in 1533, she literally made a coup at the court, and in the 16th century Russia for the first time received a ruler, however, not very popular with the boyars and the people.
In fact, it was a natural continuation of his father's actions, which were entirely aimed at centralizing power and strengthening the authority of the church.
Domestic politics
Vasily III advocated the unlimited power of the sovereign. In the fight against the feudal fragmentation of Rus' and its supporters, he actively enjoyed the support of the church. With those who were objectionable, he easily dealt with, sending him into exile or inflicting execution. The despotic character, noticeable even in the years of youth, was fully manifested. During the years of his reign, the significance of the boyars at the court falls significantly, but the landed nobility increases. In the implementation of church policy, he gave preference to the Josephites.
In 1497, Vasily III adopted a new Sudebnik, based on the Russian Truth, Charter and Court Charters, judgments for specific categories of questions. It was a set of laws and was created with the aim of systematizing and streamlining the existing rules of law at that time and was an important measure on the way to the centralization of power. The sovereign actively supported the construction, during the years of his reign the Archangel Cathedral, the Church of the Ascension of the Lord in Kolomenskoye, new settlements, fortresses and prisons were erected. In addition, he actively, like his father, continued to "collect" Russian lands, annexing the Pskov Republic, Ryazan.
Relations with the Kazan Khanate under Vasily III
In the 16th century, or rather, in its first half, it is in many ways a reflection of the internal. The sovereign sought to unite as many lands as possible, to subordinate them to the central authority, which, in fact, can be considered as the conquest of new territories. Having done away with the Golden Horde, Russia almost immediately went on the offensive against the khanates formed as a result of its collapse. Turkey and the Crimean Khanate showed interest in Kazan, which was of great importance for Rus' due to the fertility of the lands and their favorable strategic location, as well as because of the constant threat of raids. In anticipation of the death of Ivan III in 1505, the Kazan Khan suddenly launched a war that lasted until 1507. After several defeats, the Russians were forced to retreat and then make peace. History repeated itself in 1522-1523, and then in 1530-1531. The Kazan Khanate did not surrender until Ivan the Terrible came to the throne.
Russo-Lithuanian War
The main reason for the military conflict is the desire of the Moscow prince to conquer and take control of all Russian lands, as well as Lithuania's attempt to take revenge for the past defeat in 1500-1503, which cost it the loss of 1-3 parts of all territories. Russia in the 16th century, after Vasily III came to power, was in a rather difficult foreign policy situation. Suffering defeat from the Kazan Khanate, she was forced to confront the Lithuanian principality, which signed an anti-Russian agreement with the Crimean Khan.
The war began as a result of the refusal of Vasily III to fulfill the ultimatum (return of the lands) in the summer of 1507 after the attack on the Chernigov and Bryansk lands of the Lithuanian army and on the Verkhovsky principalities - the Crimean Tatars. In 1508, the rulers began negotiations and concluded a peace agreement, according to which Lublich with its surroundings was returned to the Lithuanian principality.
War of 1512-1522 became a natural continuation of previous conflicts over territory. Despite the peace, relations between the parties were extremely tense, looting and clashes at the borders continued. The reason for active action was the death of the Grand Duchess of Lithuania and the sister of Vasily III, Elena Ivanovna. The Lithuanian principality concluded another alliance with the Crimean Khanate, after which the latter began to make numerous raids in 1512. The Russian prince declared war on Sigismund I and advanced his main forces to Smolensk. In subsequent years, a number of campaigns were made with varying success. One of the largest battles took place near Orsha on September 8, 1514. In 1521, both sides had other foreign policy problems, and they were forced to make peace for 5 years. According to the agreement, in the 16th century Russia received Smolensk lands, but at the same time refused Vitebsk, Polotsk and Kyiv, as well as the return of prisoners of war.
Ivan IV (the Terrible)
Vasily III died of illness when his eldest son was only 3 years old. Anticipating his imminent death and the subsequent struggle for the throne (at that time the sovereign had two younger brothers Andrei Staritsky and Yuri Dmitrovsky), he formed a "seventh" commission of boyars. It was they who were supposed to save Ivan until his 15th birthday. In fact, the board of trustees was in power for about a year, and then began to fall apart. Russia in the 16th century (1545) received a full-fledged ruler and the first tsar in its history in the person of Ivan IV, known to the whole world under the name of Ivan the Terrible. In the photo above - a reconstruction of the appearance in the form of a skull.
Not to mention his family. Historians differ in numbers, naming the names of 6 or 7 women who were considered the wives of the king. Some died a mysterious death, others were exiled to a monastery. Ivan the Terrible had three children. The elders (Ivan and Fedor) were born from the first wife, and the youngest (Dmitry Uglitsky) from the last - M.F. Nagoi, who played a big role in the history of the country during the troubled times.
Reforms of Ivan the Terrible
The domestic policy of Russia in the 16th century under Ivan the Terrible was still aimed at the centralization of power, as well as the construction of important state institutions. To this end, together with the Chosen Rada, the tsar carried out a number of reforms. The most significant are the following.
- Organization of the Zemsky Sobor in 1549 as the highest estate-representative institution. It represented all estates with the exception of the peasantry.
- The adoption of a new code of laws in 1550, which continued the policy of the previous legal act, and also for the first time legalized a single unit of tax measurement for all.
- Lip and zemstvo reforms in the early 50s of the 16th century.
- Formation of a system of orders, including Petition, Streletsky, Printed, etc.
Russia's foreign policy during the reign of Ivan the Terrible developed in three directions: the south - the fight against the Crimean Khanate, the east - the expansion of the state's borders and the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea.
in the east
After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Astrakhan and Kazan khanates created a constant threat to the Russian lands, the Volga trade route was concentrated in their hands. In total, Ivan the Terrible undertook three campaigns against Kazan, as a result of the last one it was taken by storm (1552). After 4 years, Astrakhan was annexed, in 1557 most of Bashkiria and Chuvashia voluntarily joined the Russian state, and then the Nogai Horde recognized its dependence. Thus ended the bloody story. Russia at the end of the 16th century opened its way to Siberia. Wealthy industrialists, who received letters from the tsar for possession of lands along the Tobol River, equipped a detachment of free Cossacks at their own expense, headed by Yermak.
In the West
In an attempt to gain access to the Baltic Sea for 25 years (1558-1583), Ivan IV waged a grueling Livonian war. Its beginning was accompanied by successful campaigns for the Russians, 20 cities were taken, including Narva and Dorpat, the troops were approaching Tallinn and Riga. The Livonian Order was defeated, but the war became protracted, as several European states were drawn into it. The unification of Lithuania and Poland into the Rzeczpospolita played a great role. The situation turned into reverse side and after a long confrontation in 1582 a truce was concluded for 10 years. A year later, it was concluded that Russia lost Livonia, but returned all the captured cities except Polotsk.
On South
In the south, the Crimean Khanate, formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde, still haunted. The main task of the state in this direction was to strengthen the borders from the raids of the Crimean Tatars. For these purposes, actions were taken to develop the Wild Field. The first serif lines began to appear, i.e., defensive lines from the rubble of the forest, in between which there were wooden fortresses (fortresses), in particular, Tula and Belgorod.
Tsar Fedor I
Ivan the Terrible died on March 18, 1584. The circumstances of the royal illness are being questioned by historians to this day. His son ascended the throne, having received this right after the death of the eldest offspring Ivan. According to Grozny himself, he was rather a hermit and faster, more suitable for church service than for kingship. Historians are generally inclined to believe that he was weak in health and mind. The new tsar participated little in the administration of the state. He was under the tutelage of first boyars and nobles, and then his enterprising brother-in-law Boris Godunov. The first reigned, and the second ruled, and everyone knew it. Fedor I died on January 7, 1598, leaving no offspring and thereby interrupting the Moscow dynasty of Rurikovich.
Russia at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries was experiencing a deep socio-economic and political crisis, the growth of which was facilitated by the protracted Livonian War, the oprichnina and the Tatar invasion. All these circumstances ultimately led to the Time of Troubles, which began with the struggle for the empty royal throne.
THE LIFE OF A RUSSIAN PEASANT WOMAN INXVI- XVIICENTURIES
Koronova Lilia Romanovna
student of the faculty of history and jurisprudence of the EI K(P)FU
E-mail: lilia [email protected] yandex . en
Krapotkina Irina Evgenievna
cand. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor EI K(P)FU, Yelabuga
The history of everyday life is one of the most promising areas that have been developed in Russian historiography since the end of the 20th century. The topic is relevant against the backdrop of increased at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. interest in researching the status of Russian women in modern society for which it is necessary to study and comprehend the economic and socio-political position of women in Russia over a long historical period.
According to the first general census of the population of the Russian Empire in 1897, the peasantry was the largest estate and accounted for 77.1% of the population, and peasant women accounted for 38.9% of the total population of the entire Russian Empire.
For the peasant family of the XVI-XVII centuries, it is characteristic that the spirit of mutual assistance reigned in it; responsibilities were strictly assigned. The authority of family life was very high among the people.
The Russian peasant family of the 16th century consisted of an average of 15-20 people. It was a patriarchal family in which three or four generations of relatives lived together. However, already in the 17th century, there were no more than 10 people in families, representatives of only two generations.
A peasant marriage was concluded for economic reasons: the feelings or desires of the young were not taken into account - the landowner could marry the serfs at his own discretion. In addition, it was not accepted among the people that young men and girls themselves entered into marriage.
When choosing a bride, preference was given to healthy and hardworking girls - this was due to the fact that after marriage, women's shoulders fell on the household, raising children, working in the garden and field. Girls who were engaged in needlework were more likely to successfully marry.
In the 16th-17th centuries, marriage was entered into very early - girls from the age of 12, and boys from 15. And there was also a ban on marriages with relatives up to the sixth generation and with non-believers. It was possible to enter into marriage no more than three times, and “Stoglav” also speaks of this: “The first marriage is the law, the second is forgiveness, the third is a crime, the fourth is wickedness, there is life like a pig.”
The creation of a new family was necessarily accompanied by a wedding celebration. The Russian wedding contained two elements: Christian (wedding) and folk (“fun”). It was customary to play weddings in autumn or winter - this was the most good time since all agricultural work has been completed. Before the wedding, matchmaking always took place, during which the bride's parents decided whether they should marry their daughter to this groom. If they agreed, then a “conspiracy” took place: the groom and his father came to the bride’s parents in the house and the parties agreed on wedding expenses, terms, the size of the bride’s dowry and the groom’s gifts. Having come to a single decision, they began preparing for the wedding.
"Domostroy" taught parents to collect their daughter's dowry from birth, setting aside "from any profit." The dowry included pieces of linen, clothes, shoes, jewelry, dishes - all this was put in a box or chest.
After all the preparations were completed, the wedding was played at the agreed time. Peasant weddings of the 16th-17th centuries were accompanied by many rites: scratching the head with a comb dipped in honey, dressing hair under a kiku, showering the newlyweds with hops, treating them with bread and salt - these rites were aimed at attracting happiness to the young in family life. However, there was a custom that determined the further position of a woman in the family: the groom put a whip in one of the boots, and a coin in the other. The task of the bride was to remove the boots from the groom's feet in turn, if the first was a boot with a coin, then she was considered lucky, and family life was happy, and if the boot with a whip was the first, then the husband defiantly hit his wife with it - thus the husband showed the nature of further relations in family .
The position of a married peasant woman of the 16th-17th centuries was freer than that of women of the upper classes: she could freely leave the house, doing household chores.
Peter Petrey notes that peasant women worked in the field and at home on a par with their husbands. At the same time, the woman had other things to do, such as cooking, washing, needlework, that is, making clothes for all family members, and they also carried firewood and water to the hut. In addition, the foreigner notes that husbands often beat their wives.
However, the woman had great authority in the family. It especially increased after the birth of a boy - this was due to the allotment of land only to men. Peasant women of the 16th-17th centuries were constantly busy with business even during pregnancy, in connection with this, childbirth could take place anywhere - in a field, in a hut or in a barn. In the Russian medieval society, the hospital was replaced by a bathhouse and, if possible, they tried to give birth there. "Domostroy" ordered to teach children respect for parents. The child was taught the appropriate craft with early age. The mother taught her daughter to housekeeping and needlework from an early age: from the age of 6 she began to master the spinning wheel, from 10 - the sickle, sewing. At the age of 14, girls already knew how to weave, mow hay and bake bread. At the age of 15, peasant girls worked in the field on an equal basis with adults.
In their free time from field and household work, women were engaged in weaving. I. E. Zabelin writes that the linen business in the peasant economy was exclusively in the hands of women. In addition, sewing and spinning were also the occupation of women and girls on long winter evenings. Sewing shirts was a very troublesome business: the preparation of flax fiber took place in the summer, then it was soaked for several weeks, then the stems were crushed, ruffled and combed - as a result, raw materials for spinning were obtained. Having finished spinning, peasant women wove canvases, for this a loom was brought into the house from the barn. In the summer, when the linen was woven, it was whitewashed in the sun, spread out on a meadow. Only after all this was the canvas ready for cutting and sewing. In the XVI-XVII centuries, girls were engaged in needlework, having gathered together by the light of a torch; Evenings were spent in conversation.
Since ancient times, clothing has been designed not only to hide nudity, but also to emphasize the wealth of a person. In addition, it was believed that clothes are designed to ward off evil spirits.
Thanks to the information of foreign guests, it is possible to compile a description of the outfits of Russian peasant women. The clothes of men and women were very similar; was not pleasing to the eye and was sewn at home. Peasants worked in old clothes, having finished business, they changed into everyday clothes, and on holidays, they put on smart clothes to church. Clothes were often inherited, carefully stored in crates and chests, and cleaned after each wear. The main item of clothing in the XVI-XVII centuries was a shirt, sewn from wool fabric, the so-called hair shirt, and linen or hemp, but due to the complexity of the manufacturing technology, linen shirts were less common.
According to Russian medieval mores, a woman was not allowed to emphasize her figure, so the shirt had a loose fit, did not fit to the body and reached the knees. From the 17th century, they began to wear a sundress over a shirt, that is, a sleeveless dress that fitted the chest and expanded downwards or poneva - a blue or black woolen skirt with a decorated bottom.
In the clothes of peasants until the 16th-17th centuries, the belt played the role of a talisman, but by the indicated period this meaning had been lost and it became just a traditional costume detail.
Particular attention in the XVI-XVII centuries was paid to women's headdresses, as there was a clear distinction between girls' and women's. Before marriage, girls were allowed to bare their heads, after marriage - this was considered indecent behavior. The girls wore dressings - decorated strips of fabric that wrapped around their heads with a hoop, "kosniks" - decorations on the braid, and married women- volosniki (home dress), podbrusniks (soft hats worn with a ubrus or scarf), ubruses (holiday dress), kokoshniks (worn from marriage to the birth of the first child and on holidays) or kiki, that is, they twisted their hair and hid them under the cap.
Peasant outerwear was made from ram skin, which had a specific smell. Peasant women had bast shoes on their feet, which were made in their own household from bast mixed with pieces of fur or coarse cloth. In winter, felt boots and woolen socks were worn. There were no stockings - they were replaced by pieces of linen that wrapped the legs.
It is typical for the peasants that they always kept their elegant dresses clean and stored in chests, taking them out only on holidays and for going to church. Often items of clothing passed by inheritance.
Women of the peasant class of the 16th-17th centuries could not afford to purchase expensive items of jewelry, so clothes were decorated with embroidery.
The girl in advance began to make clothes that would be her dowry, since this required a very long and painstaking work. For the wedding, most often the bride wore a beautiful, that is, red dress.
I would like to note that the peasant women did not care about grace, taste or combination of colors. All the clothes were made by hand and therefore they were treated very carefully, new clothes were put on in exceptional cases and, having taken care of their safety, they were put back into the chests where they were stored. Clothing in the XVI-XVII centuries was worn until it became completely unusable. Another feature of Russian peasant clothing in the period under review is that there were no clothes made specifically for children - they were forced to wear adult clothes, and if clothes were sewn on them, then “for growth”.
In other words, the clothes of a Russian peasant woman of the 16th-17th centuries did not differ in a variety of forms and matter, so they tried to decorate them with embroidery and other methods. The main purpose of clothing was protection from the cold and covering nudity - and homespun clothing coped with this.
The peasant table of the 16th-17th centuries did not differ in variety and was based on custom. The basis of the diet was black bread, cabbage soup, porridge and kvass; many dishes were similar to each other.
"Domostroy" advised the hostess to be interested in the tricks of cooking from "good wives". The food of the peasants was closely connected not only with religion (strict observance of fasts), but also with what the peasant farms themselves produced.
In the 16th-17th centuries, each Orthodox Christian attached special importance to the observance of fasts. For this reason, the table of the Russian peasant was divided into lean and modest (meat-eater). During fasting days, the use of meat and dairy products was prohibited, and all this was allowed in the meat-eater. IN Orthodox calendar there were four main multi-day fasts and many one-day fasts. Thus, the number of fasting days in total took about 200 calendar days. In addition to large fasts, Wednesday and Friday throughout the year, with the exception of Christmas time and continuous weeks, were also fast days. Religious norms and "Domostroy" regulated the use of certain products during the four main posts.
The first was Great Lent, which lasted 40 days, lean bread, fish, porridge with it, porridge from peas, dried and boiled mushrooms, cabbage soup, pancakes, jelly, pies with jam, onions, peas, turnips, mushrooms , cabbage .
The next was Peter's fast, which began a week after Trinity Day and ended on Peter's Day, that is, on July 12. During this fast, Orthodox peasants ate fish, fish soup seasoned with saffron, onions and garlic, pies with millet and peas, mushrooms, cabbage soup.
Next came the Assumption Fast, which lasted from 1 to 14 August. At this time, fish food was served at the table: sauerkraut with fish, fish seasoned with garlic, in gravy with seasonings, fish jellies, fish soup, fish balls, pastries, sour pies with peas or fish.
And the final major post was Christmas, which lasted 6 weeks from November 12 until the Nativity of Christ. Here, the peasants of the 16th-17th centuries ate boiled and stewed fish seasoned with garlic and horseradish, fish jelly, fish soup, loaves. At the end of the Christmas Lent, the peasants tried to serve dishes from the meat of piglets or ducklings on the festive table.
The largest one-day fasts are the day of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, Christmas Eve. On these days, wholemeal porridge, peas, baked turnips, cabbage soup and pickle were served.
The basis of peasant nutrition was rye bread, and pastries made from wheat flour were put on the table only on major holidays. No meal was complete without bread. In addition, he played important role and in various ceremonies: religious (prosphora for communion, Easter cakes for Easter), wedding (newlyweds were greeted with “bread and salt”), folk (pancakes for Shrovetide, gingerbread for spring).
Bread was baked once a week in a special wooden tub- a kneader, which was rarely washed, because it was constantly in work. Before putting the dough, the hostess rubbed the walls of the tub with salt, then poured it warm water. In the peasant economy of the 16th-17th centuries, a piece of dough left over from previous baking was used for sourdough. Next, the flour was poured and thoroughly mixed, left overnight in a warm place. The hostess kneaded the dough that had risen in the morning until it began to lag behind both the hands and the walls of the kneading bowl. After that, the dough was again put in a warm place for the night, and kneaded again in the morning. Now the dough was molded and placed in the oven. Baked bread was stored in special wooden bread bins. A woman who knew how to bake delicious bread was especially respected in the family. In lean years, the peasants were forced to add quinoa, tree bark, ground acorns, nettles and bran to the flour, as a result of which the bread acquired a bitter aftertaste.
In the 16th-17th centuries, peasants baked not only bread from flour, but also pies, pancakes, pancakes, gingerbread, but all this was present exclusively on the festive table. Pancakes can be considered the most popular flour dish: they were cooked for Shrove Tuesday, fed a woman in labor and commemorated the deceased. Next came pies - they were prepared from yeast, unleavened and puff pastry, and they could be baked in oil (spun) and without it in the hearth of the oven (hearth). The filling for pies was eggs, fruits and berries, meat and fish, cottage cheese, vegetables, mushrooms, cereals. Another flour dish of the Russian peasant holiday table there were gingerbread cookies of different shapes. When preparing the dough, honey and spices were added to it - hence the name. Kalachi was baked from a mixture of rye and wheat flour.
In the peasant environment of the 16th-17th centuries, cabbage soup and porridge were the most widespread, and any stew was called cabbage soup. Porridges were cooked from cereals in milk or water with the addition of butter. Kashi was an attribute of many folk rituals, for example, it was boiled for christenings, weddings and commemorations. If a woman knew how to cook tasty cabbage soup and bake bread, then this was already a reason to consider her a good housewife. Shchi was prepared from fresh and sour cabbage, often with the addition of turnips and beets. In general, turnips were considered the second bread. Shchi was cooked both in meat broth and simply in water.
In the early days, on the Russian medieval peasant table, one could often find milk soups and cereals from various cereals, flavored with butter or lard, cheeses, cottage cheese, sour cream and meat dishes. There was plenty of meat on Russian soil, but the peasants ate little of it; each type of meat was supplemented with garden crops (turnips, garlic, onions, cucumbers, peppers, radishes). From spring to late autumn, meat dishes were prepared mainly from lamb; in winter - from beef (since a large amount of meat did not spoil in the cold), before Christmas - from salted or smoked pork.
However, not everything on the peasant table was grown by the peasant family itself. Fish soup, cooked from river fish caught on communal lands, was widely used. The fish was also consumed in a salted, boiled, smoked form and was used to make cabbage soup, pies, cutlets, served with buckwheat, millet and other cereals. Poultry dishes (home-raised or hunted) were well seasoned with horseradish and vinegar.
A feature of the dishes of the Russian table is that they were richly seasoned with onions, garlic, pepper, mustard and vinegar, but salt, due to its high cost, the peasants could rarely afford.
The most common drinks among the peasants of the 16th-17th centuries were kvass, fruit drink, and in April - berezovets, that is, birch sap. Beer, honey, vodka were also widely used.
Kvass drinks were available to many, besides, many dishes could be prepared on its basis, for example, okroshka, beetroot, tyuryu. A good housewife knew how to prepare a wide variety of kvass: from barley or rye malt, from honey and berries (cherries, bird cherry, raspberries, cranberries) or fruits (apples, pears). In addition, kvass, as well as cabbage, were excellent means of preventing diseases such as scurvy. Beer was brewed from barley, oats, rye and wheat. The original and best Russian drink, famous among foreigners, was mead; all travelers unanimously recognized his dignity. Honey was brewed from berries (raspberries, currants, cherries, lingonberries, bird cherry), with yeast or hops.
In the 17th century, vodka appeared and became widespread among the peasantry. Usually Russian vodka was made from rye, wheat or barley, but there was an exception - this is women's vodka, which was made with the addition of molasses or honey, due to which it turned out to be sweet. In addition, in the manufacture of vodka, they often insisted on various spices (cinnamon, mustard) and fragrant herbs (mint, St. John's wort, juniper) and made liqueurs on different berries.
Alcoholic drinks were widespread - they were usually consumed on various holidays and occasions, but foreign travelers note that drunkenness was a frequent occurrence among the Russian people in the 16th-17th centuries. "Domostroy" forbade a woman to drink intoxicating drinks, however, Jacques Margeret notes that women and girls were often given to drunkenness.
In the peasant environment, it was believed that food must be earned, so they rarely had breakfast. A peasant family of the 16th-17th centuries rarely managed to dine together: in a bad time, they ate right in the field in order not to waste time.
Based on the foregoing, we can say that the food culture of the peasants of the XVI-XVII centuries was fully dependent on religious fasts and agricultural products. The daily diet of the peasants was extremely unpretentious and consisted of cereals, vegetables (such as turnips, cabbage, cucumbers), meat and fish, that is, their meal was mostly simple, due to the fact that food was consumed that was grown on their plot .
Summing up, I would like to note that a Russian woman of the 16th-17th centuries provided full support and assistance to her husband, she worked on an equal footing with him; in addition, she was engaged in raising children, sewing clothes and cooking. The peasant family was large, and the incomes were small, as a result of which the woman could not afford to buy clothes - everything was produced on the farm itself. Also the situation was with peasant table- most of the produced they were forced to give to the landowners. Thus, the peasant family was very close-knit, and the position of a woman in the family depended on her own skills.
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