All buildings, despite their difference in technical solution, consist of separate structural parts. Walls are one of them. I propose to consider the architectural and structural elements of the walls, get acquainted with their name and purpose.
When designing buildings, they also proceed from aesthetic considerations, giving the facade a look with attractive proportions of the outer elements of the walls of the building.
To exclude solidity (uniformity), the surfaces are conditionally divided vertically (pilasters, for example, fasteners) and horizontally (socle, cornices).
The main elements of the walls
plinth
The lower part of the building (walls), located on the foundation, somewhat protruding beyond the plane of the facade, is called the plinth. It connects the foundation to the walls.
The top of the plinth (cordon) is arranged horizontally, so a building with a high plinth (50-60 cm) is perceived as architecturally complete, towering, as if on a pedestal. In addition to architectural and constructive expressiveness, the plinth protects the building from the penetration of atmospheric precipitation.
Between the foundation and the plinth, waterproofing is arranged to prevent moisture from entering the masonry. In some cases, when the material of the walls and the plinth is different, a waterproofing layer is also provided on top of the plinth.
For non-seismic areas - this is rolled waterproofing (roofing material, modern roll materials). For the seismic zone - this is waterproofing from cement mortar M - 100, 150, 30mm thick.
The plinth acts as an important architectural and structural element, forming the foundation of the structure, it gives it not only visual, but also structurally greater stability. It must be finished with durable waterproof and frost-resistant materials.
It can be:
- Plaster with additives of granite, marble chips, just plaster;
- Brick cladding with jointing;
- Natural or artificial stone;
- natural veneer, artificial tiles and other options.
1-base; 2-window opening; 3 - doorway; 4 jumpers; 5- ordinary partition; 6 - corner partition; 7- crowning cornice; 8 the same, intermediate; 9- belt; 10 - sandrik; 11-parapet; 12 - pediment; 13 - niche; 14 - pilaster; 15 - buttress; 16-cut; 17 - raskrepka The architectural and structural elements of the walls give the building proportionality of shapes and sizes, improve the visual perception of the building as a whole.
openings
Openings are called large holes left during the construction of walls for window, door blocks, stoves. The distance between the openings is called piers.
Types of piers:
- ordinary - between adjacent openings;
- corner - between the corner of the building and the nearby opening.
The upper, side areas surrounding the opening are called slopes (lintel). In brick exterior walls, the masonry in the openings is arranged with protrusions of a quarter of a brick (from the side of the street).
Jumpers
The structure that covers door, window, arched openings is called a lintel. Jumpers support the walls located above, overlappings. They should rest on the wall masonry.
According to the bearing capacity, the jumpers are divided into:
- Load-bearing elements - must bear the weight load wall material above it, overlap plus own weight;
- Non-bearing - only their own weight and the load from the wall material above them.
Prefabricated reinforced concrete products are more common in construction, the dimensions of which are taken depending on the load, the size of the overlapped space, the thickness of the walls on which it will rest. Monolithic lintels are impractical in terms of cost and labor intensity, but they are possible.
Embedding depth is:
- for carriers - 250mm;
- for not load-bearing elements- not less than 125mm;
- for partitions - 200mm.
They are mounted on a layer of mortar with a thickness of not more than 15 mm. The geometric shape of the lintel can be bar, slab, facade and beam. If they do not overlap standard size in width, then it is made according to an individually placed order.
Architectural and structural elements of walls - in particular, lintels can also be made of brick type, provided that the width of the overlapped space is not more than 2 meters, with a small load from the wall material laid above, in non-seismic areas, in the absence of vibration. They are used only in bearing walls Oh.
Brick lintels, depending on the laying technique, are:
- Ordinary lintels - masonry is of the usual type, like a solid belt, the mortar is used with a higher grade, special quality control is carried out. The height of the masonry layer is calculated by the project, and should not be less than four rows.
When constructing a jumper, a formwork is installed from below it, on which a layer of cement mortar 30 mm thick is laid. Reinforcement is recessed into this layer, the cross section and number of rods of which is determined by the project. - Arched lintels are laid out along the arranged formwork, made in the form of an arc of a given curvature. The brick is laid on edge. In this case, the seams between adjacent bricks are wedge-shaped. The number of rows of masonry must be kept odd.
They are now rarely used, mostly to give the structure architectural and constructive expressiveness. They are mainly present in old buildings.
Cornices
Cornices are horizontal protruding parts of a wall. The main or crowning one is the upper cornice. It is considered as one of the main elements of the outer walls, completing the architectural and structural ensemble of the building. In terms of functionality, it serves to divert precipitation from the roof.
Architectural and structural elements of the walls - cornices are designed taking into account the size of the building, number of storeys, accessories and harmony with the main building around.
As a rule, reinforced concrete prefabricated elements are mounted, which are fastened with anchors. If a small overhang of the cornice is provided, then it is made of brick, by laying masonry (solid brick).
Cornices over openings (window, door) are called sandrikami. The plane of the facades can be divided by additional, intermediate cornices of a simple form - belts.
Expansion joints in the walls of the building
With a large length of the building, it may not react equally with its parts to external influences. These are temperature differences, uneven settlement, seismic vibrations, which is fraught with the appearance of cracks that reduce the bearing capacity of the structure.
Expansion joints divide the building into separate parts from the foundation to the roof. Their width is calculated based on the temperature of the winter period, brand of solutions, wall material. For example, the lower the temperature in winter, the more often seams are arranged.
Sedimentary seams are performed where uneven settlement is expected. On the border of soils of different structure, at the junction of buildings with different number of storeys, and other similar options. Here, the cut is made from the bottom of the foundation.
Anti-seismic seams are provided in areas of increased seismicity on the principle that each separate compartment must be resistant to tremors.
ventilation ducts
In internal walls ah heated buildings smoke and ventilation ducts. They are laid out of brick, can be reinforced concrete (ventilation). They are designed for air exchange in rooms with high humidity, with the presence of combustion products, intoxication, and other similar moments.
From each room, a separate exhaust channel. The channels should not communicate with each other, and the hood should go outside through the ventilation heads on the roof.
Loggia, balcony, bay window
These are also architectural and structural elements of the walls, providing additional usable area and operational convenience. They serve for household needs, they can be attached to the room where they are located.
Balcony- this is a cantilever slab of reinforced concrete, anchored into the outer wall. It is fenced with railings, balconies are glazed and finished from the inside to exclude rainfall, or they can remain open.
Some owners of the second floors who do not have a balcony arrange them themselves, leaning on racks, but this requires special permission and a project with the calculation of loads on the supporting parts.
Loggia fenced on the sides with walls, and on top with a ceiling. The walls rest on a foundation made specifically for the enclosing walls of the loggia. It is superior in bearing capacity to the balcony. It can also be glazed and make an excellent utility room.
Bay window protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, increasing the interior space from the inside. It is glazed and connected to interior. This is typical especially in houses of old construction with architectural and constructive external forms. According to the shape in the plan, it can be of different configurations depending on the architectural and constructive solution.
Parapet
Exterior walls quite often end with a parapet, which is a continuation of the masonry and rises above the roof. It is designed to protect the roof, according to the architectural and constructive solution, it is a rectangular wall with a height of 0.7 - 1 meter. The parapet also serves as an architectural detail that adorns the building.
Other description of wall elements
There are other smaller architectural and structural elements of the walls. These include:
Gable- a wall that covers the attic gable roof from the end, framed by cornices protruding beyond the plane.
forceps the same pediment, only without a cornice in the lower part at the base.
niches- a hollow recess in the walls. Heating radiators are recessed in them, built-in wardrobes, plumbing wiring, etc. are arranged.
nests- small holes or recesses intended for laying pipelines in sleeves, sealing the ends of structures, etc.
Pilasters- narrow vertically located protrusions of the walls serve to strengthen them locally with a large length or height, with a rectangular section in plan. They can have a foundation, a basis, a capital, which visually resemble columns.
Such protrusions of semicircular section are called semi-columns. Pilasters, semi-columns give the building aesthetic solemnity, monumentality.
buttresses- structures that increase the stability of the walls, which are ledges from them, having an inclined outer rib. This design gives additional rigidity, strength in the perception of horizontal loads.
The walls are sometimes made with ledges along the height of the masonry, which are called cut-offs. The ledges on the plane of the facades along its length are called raskrepka.
All architectural and structural elements of the walls have their own functional purpose, and also give the building architectural beauty, expressiveness, and individuality.
The walls are the main structural part of the building. Walls are load-bearing structures that are calculated to have sufficient strength and stability under vertical and horizontal loads.
Wall is a vertical fence separating the room from the external environment or from another room.
The walls are subdivided:
- depending on the perception of loads - on bearing, self-supporting And non-bearing;
- by type of material - on stone, wooden, walls made of local materials, as well as combined
In this article, we will consider the main types of walls according to the type of material - wooden And stone.
wooden walls
For the walls of low-rise buildings traditional material is a tree. The most comfortable in terms of sanitary and hygienic requirements are cobbled walls And chopped walls from conifers trees. Their disadvantages are sedimentary deformation in the first 1.5-2 years and low fire resistance.
Frame walls justified in the presence of lumber and effective insulation. Note that frame walls do not require massive foundations, unlike chopped ones, they do not give post-construction deformations. Fire resistance and capitalization frame walls increases with brick cladding.
logs it is advisable to harvest in winter, since the wood is less susceptible to decay, warping during drying. The moisture content of wood should be 80-90%. Logs must be free of cracks, rot, not affected by bark beetle and fungus. The quality of the material can be determined by hitting the butt of an ax, a clean and clear sound indicates good quality. Wooden houses built no more than two stories high.
By design wooden walls heated buildings are divided into chopped from logs or beams, frame, panel and frame-panel.
Chopped log walls
Characteristic
Chopped log walls they are a structure of logs stacked on top of each other in horizontal rows and connected at the corners with cuts. The thickness of the logs in the upper cut for the outer walls of heated buildings located in the central strip of Russia is 22 cm, in the northern and northeastern regions 24-26 cm. The diameter of the logs is chosen the same, with a difference between the upper and lower cuts of no more than 3 cm.
Technology
Each row of logs in the wall is called crown. The crowns, stacked sequentially one on top of the other from the bottom to the top of the wall, form a frame. The first lower crown is called salary, it is made 2-3 cm thicker than the rest of the crowns.
The crowns are laid with butts alternately in different directions and connected along the length by means of vertical ridge(Fig. 10), and the joints of the crowns along the height of the wall are spaced apart. The crowns are joined together with the help of grooved grooves and plug-in spikes measuring 25x50x120.
The crowns are stacked groove down thereby eliminating the possibility of water infiltration into it. Tow is laid in the grooves between the crowns in order to seal the seam and insulate. Depending on climatic conditions, the groove width is taken from 12 to 15 cm.
spikes put through 1.5-2.0 m along the height of the log house in a checkerboard pattern, rectangular (8x2 cm) or round (3-4 cm) section, 10-12 cm high. In the piers, spikes are placed in each crown one above the other in the amount at least two and located from the edges of the pier by 15-20 cm.
Within 1-2 years after the erection of the frame, the log house gives a draft of 1/20 of its height, due to the shrinkage of the wood and the compaction in the seams of the tow. In connection with log house draft nests for spikes should exceed the height of the spikes by 10-20 mm, and gaps of 6-10 cm are left above the openings, which are filled with tow and covered with platbands.
Seams between logs to reduce the airflow, the tow is caulked for the first time immediately after the construction of the walls and the second time 1-2 years after the end of the precipitation. In the corners of the building, the crowns are matched with a cut with the rest into the bowl or without the rest - into the paw. With the method of conjugating the crowns in the corners into the paw, that is, without residue, the wood is consumed in a smaller volume, therefore this method is more appropriate. On fig. 11 shows a section of a chopped log wall from the eaves to the foundation.
Advantages and disadvantages
Chopped log walls are highly durable and good heat-shielding qualities, at favorable conditions operation durability. Processing logs and erecting walls is a laborious process that requires a lot of wood.
cobbled walls
Characteristic
cobbled walls erected from horizontally laid beams. The use of beams makes it possible to exclude manual processing of logs, cutting of corner mates, wall junctions and move on to mechanized harvesting of wall elements.
Procurement of material
Bars for walls are harvested at the factory with all cuts for mates and sockets for spikes. Compared with log houses the complexity of the construction of cobbled houses is much less, the consumption of wood is reduced. Unlike log walls, block walls are assembled immediately on ready-made foundations.
Technology
Cross section of bars for external walls, 150x150 mm and 180x180 mm are accepted. Depending on climatic conditions, for internal walls - 100x150 mm and 100x180 mm. The bars are stacked on top of each other with a resinous tow between them and caulking the seams. For better retraction water from a horizontal seam between the bars, a chamfer of 20x20 mm is removed from the upper edge of the front part of the bar.
Rows of beams are interconnected cylindrical dowels with a diameter of 30 mm and a length of 60 mm, placing them at a distance of 1.5-2 m from one another. Crowns of mating cobbled walls are on the same level and connect them at corners, junctions and sections different ways. Conjugation of the corner and the adjoining of the walls with the help of dowels is shown in fig. 12 using spikes with dimensions of 35x35 mm and 35x25 mm.
Block wall protection
Effective protection of cobbled walls from atmospheric influences is boarding or brick cladding, which provides protection of walls from moisture, increases thermal protection, reduces the effect of wind, with brick wall cladding, fire resistance increases. Brick cladding must be installed with a gap from the cobbled walls at a distance of 5-7 cm, at the bottom and at the top brick cladding leave vents to ensure ventilation.
Frame walls
Advantages
Frame walls require less wood than log or block walls, are less labor intensive and therefore more economical.
The basis of the frame walls is carrier wooden frame , sheathed on both sides with sheet or molded materials. Frame walls, due to their lightness, are practically not subject to shrinkage, which allows them to be sheathed or lined immediately after construction.
Wall protection
Frame walls must be protected from atmospheric moisture by performing outer lining with overlapping vertical and horizontal joints and arranging drains from protruding wall elements. Protection against water vapor is provided by arranging a vapor barrier made of synthetic film, glassine or using other types of vapor barrier, laying them between inner lining and a heater.
Technology
For frame manufacturing boards with a thickness of 50 mm are used for exterior and interior walls, as well as for rafters and beams. With a thickness of 50 mm, it is recommended to use the pillars of load-bearing walls with a width of at least 100 mm.
Width of frame posts in the outer walls, the calculated thickness of the insulation is determined, depending on the efficiency of the insulation itself and the estimated temperature of the outside air. The supporting racks of the frame are located at a distance of 0.5 m, linking with the dimensions of the window and doorways. The basement beams are placed at a distance of 0.5 m.
Frame with inside sheathed with boards of any profile and section, plasterboard; typesetting, sheet wall panels and other finishing materials. From the outside, “lining”, siding, tes, thermal brick panels and other materials are used to sheath the frame.
Warming
Insulation of frame walls carried out with the help of mineral and organic materials with a density of up to 500-600 kg / m³. Mineral, glass wool slabs, expanded polystyrene are effective modern heaters, as they are fire resistant, lightweight, not subject to decay, attack and penetration of bacteria, fungi, and are not destroyed by rodents. Organic heaters are subject to destruction by rodents, combustible, rotting, in addition, before backfilling, they must be treated with an antiseptic and mixed before use with a mineral binder - cement, lime, gypsum, then laid in a wet state in layers of 15-20 cm, tamping. Such a backfill dries out within 4-5 weeks, therefore, pre-prepared slabs and blocks of lightweight concrete should be used to fill the frame. Backfill materials are: pumice, sawdust, gilak, shavings, peat and others, which are largely inferior in their properties to modern mineral heaters.
Shield walls
Advantages
difference shield wooden houses from frame ones is that their main structural parts consist of enlarged elements of shields, usually made at the factory. Construction process panel houses reduced to installation at the construction site and finishing work. The construction of panel wooden houses reduces the labor intensity of work, provides high rates of installation.
Technology
In shield wooden houses the basis of the walls is bottom trim from wooden antiseptic bars laid along the basement of the building and attached to it with anchor bolts. Wall shields are installed on the strapping. Above wall panels they are fastened with an upper harness laid on them, on which the attic floor rests. Wall panels are made internal and external, which, in turn, are divided into deaf, window and door. The height of the shields is equal to the height of the floor, the width is assumed to be 600-1200 mm. The shields consist of a paving and sheathing, internal and external, between which a heater is placed.
Mattresses made of mineral felt. A vapor barrier is laid under the lining on the inside of the shield in order to prevent the formation of condensation of water vapor inside the shield, penetrating into it from the side of the room. To reduce airflow under outer skin lay paper.
Shields are placed vertically and connected with nails. When arranging joints between shields, it is necessary to ensure sufficient tightness and not blowing through the joint. On fig. 14b shows the recommended design of the vertical joint of the shields. The joint must be covered with continuous layers of air and vapor barrier.
Mineral felt 20 mm thick is laid in the joint, gluing it cold bituminous mastic . Then, using a lever device, the joint is compressed. IN panel houses ceilings arrange shield or beam.
Wall protection
When arranging the basement and cornice units, it is necessary to take measures to protect them from freezing by insulated basement and insulated frieze belt at the cornice, as well as from moistening the vaporous moisture of the internal air, arranging for this purpose a vapor barrier. Under the basement floor, the underground is not insulated. The underground should be cold and well ventilated, and the structure floor coverings and especially the basement should have reliable insulation and a vapor barrier laid on top under the finished floor structure. To protect against freezing at the level of the ceiling, an insulated belt is arranged outside.
stone walls
Homogeneous walls
Material
Homogeneous walls made of ordinary hollow or light building bricks. In heterogeneous lightweight walls part of the brickwork was replaced along the thickness of the wall with thermal insulation tiles and an air gap.
Technology
The walls are erected with a thickness of 1/2, 1, 11/2, 2, 21/2, 3 bricks or more, given the thickness of the vertical joints equal to 10 mm, the brick walls have a thickness of 120, 250, 380, 510, 640, 770, respectively mm or more. The thickness of the horizontal joints is 12 mm, then the height of 13 rows of masonry should be 1 m.
When erecting brick walls, two masonry systems are used: two-row - chain and six-row spoon.
IN two-row masonry system bonder rows alternate with spoon rows. The transverse seams in this system overlap by 1/4 bricks, and the longitudinal ones by 1/2 bricks (Fig. 16).
Six row system involves the alternation of five spoon rows with one tychkovy. In each spoon row, the transverse vertical seams are tied into half a brick, the longitudinal vertical seams formed by the spoons are tied up in rows of rows through five spoon rows.
Masonry in a six-row system is simpler than in a two-row system. To reduce the air permeability of the walls, the front seams of the masonry are sealed with a special tool, giving the seams the shape of a roller, fillet or triangle. This method is called seams.
Flaws
The disadvantage of an ordinary solid brick, clay or silicate, is its large volume weight and therefore big thermal conductivity.
Crowning cornices
Technology
Crowning cornice shown in fig. 17, masonry walls with a small extension - up to 300 mm and not more than 1/2 of the wall thickness, can be laid out of brick by gradually releasing rows of masonry by 60-80 mm in each row. When carrying out more than 300 mm, cornices are made of prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs embedded in the walls.
The inner ends of reinforced concrete slabs are covered with prefabricated longitudinal reinforced concrete beams, which are attached to the masonry using steel anchors embedded in it, with the help of which they ensure the stability of the eaves.
Classification
Lightweight brick walls are divided into 2 groups. The first group includes structures consisting of two thin longitudinal brick walls, between which are laid thermal insulation material, the second group includes structures consisting of one brick wall, insulated with thermal insulation boards.
Brick walls with thermal insulation panels
Characteristic
Brick walls with insulation of heat-insulating panels (Fig. 19) consist of a bearing part - masonry, the thickness of which is determined only from the conditions of strength and stability of the wall, and a heat-insulating part - foam concrete, gypsum or gypsum-slag panels.
Advantages and disadvantages
Lightweight concrete stones compared to ordinary bricks, they have a lower volumetric weight and lower thermal conductivity, therefore, the use of ceramic stones for the construction of external walls makes it possible to reduce their thickness. The disadvantage is that lightweight concrete stones of lower bulk density have lower strength and weather resistance.
Characteristic
Three-hollow stones with large voids have dimensions of 390x190x188 mm. In bonder rows, a bonder stone with a smooth end surface is used.
After laying the stones in the wall of the void in the climatic conditions of the middle and northern regions, it should be covered with slag, a low heat-conducting material, because when large sizes voids in them there is an exchange of air, increasing the thermal conductivity of the wall. Backfilling voids with low-conductivity materials increases the complexity of masonry. To reduce air circulation in voids, three-hollow stones with non-through voids are used - five-wall stones.
Any building is an interconnected system of architectural and structural elements, each of which performs a specific function. These elements can also be called the constituent parts of a building.
All structural elements can be divided into load-bearing and enclosing. The load-bearing elements include those parts of the building that perceive the load from other elements lying above, as well as the payload (the weight of people, furniture, equipment). Enclosing (self-supporting) structures are called, which perceive the load only from their own weight. These are non-load-bearing walls (including internal partitions), as well as the covering of the building (roof). External brick walls can be non-bearing if the structural system of the building is not a wall one, but a frame one: in this case, the floors are supported by pillars, and the brickwork, supported by the floor of its floor, performs only a protective function. The load-bearing external elements of the building also play the role of a fence, protecting the internal space of the building from the effects of the external environment. Internal enclosing elements (partitions) perform the function of dividing the space. External enclosing structures, in addition, perceive the load from snow, wind and other atmospheric phenomena, and therefore must be stronger than similar internal structures.
The set of load-bearing structural elements of a building is called bearing frame. These elements provide strength, rigidity and stability of the building. The supporting frame includes both vertical (walls, pillars, columns) and horizontal (floor) elements. Stationary stairs and the roof are also load-bearing structures.
The carrier frame must be supported by foundation- a structural element that receives loads from the supporting frame (which, in turn, receives loads from non-bearing parts of the building and from environmental influences, as well as a payload) and transfers them to the soil base (soil layers that take the load from the building or structure) . The lower plane of the foundation, with which it rests on the soil base, is called the sole. The upper plane of the foundation, on which the walls or pillars rest, is called the edge. The foundation is the foundation of the building, the most important structural part.
Foundations are tape, columnar, slab (solid) and pile. It is possible to arrange a strip or column foundation from a brick (Fig. 14).
Figure 14. Types of brick foundation: a) tape; b) columnar
Strip foundation is a solid wall (tape). It can be made of reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic), rubble concrete or brick. Strip foundations are usually used in buildings with a wall bearing system. In section (in cross section) strip foundation has, as a rule, the shape of a rectangle, but at high loads on the base it is performed in steps.
Column Foundation- these are poles installed in key places (corners of the building, intersections of load-bearing walls) and along the walls with a certain maximum interval and fastened along the top with strapping beams. Such foundations are used in frame or wall-type buildings with a low weight of structures (for example, under wooden walls). The pillars can be made of wood, brick, rubble concrete or reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic).
Pile and slab foundations used in buildings with a large load on the base or in difficult soil conditions. These two types of foundations can be combined (when the building rests on a solid slab, installed on piles hammered or poured into the ground, located throughout the base area).
plinth- the upper part of the foundation, located above ground level. The basement, like underground structures, needs increased resistance to moisture, but it can be made of a different material than the underground part of the foundation. For the construction of brick foundations and plinths, only full-bodied ceramic bricks of high grades are used. If the building uses a columnar foundation, the plinth can be made in the form of a fence - a wall or bricks or other material located between the foundation pillars protruding above the ground, the soil and the strapping beams.
The plinth can be made recessed relative to the wall or, on the contrary, protruding beyond its plane. A plinth flush with the wall is usually not suitable, since in this case it is more difficult to waterproof between the wall and the plinth. If the plinth protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, the protruding part of its edge is called a cordon.
Around the basement at the level of the ground base, a blind area is performed - an inclined element to drain water from the basement and foundation.
Walls- a vertical bearing element of a building, having an elongated (extended) shape in plan, enclosing the premises in the building from the external environment and from each other. Walls can be external and internal, load-bearing and self-supporting. Internal self-supporting walls are called partitions; they divide the space of the building within the floor into rooms. There are also non-load-bearing (curtain) walls made from prefabricated (factory-made) panels hung on floors. The walls are made of stone, brick, reinforced concrete, concrete blocks and wood. For partitions, brick, wood, reinforced concrete or drywall are used.
The side of the wall facing the street, together with the totality of structural and decorative elements called the front of the building. Distinguish between the main facade (facing the street, square, etc.), side and courtyard facades.
Pillars, columns, racks, pylons- vertical bearing elements frame system, which are stand-alone supports.
corners walls - the place where the ends of two walls meet. Most often this connection is at a right angle, other angles are much less common in projects.
Partition- the part of the wall located between two openings. According to the method of laying, a brick wall resembles a pillar. The pier adjacent to the corner of the wall is called the corner pier, the rest of the piers are ordinary.
Cornice- a ledge in the upper part of the wall, designed to protect the walls from water flowing from the roof. This element can also play a decorative role. In brickwork, the cornice is formed by laying several rows with an overlap. The eaves can be arranged in the level floors- For additional protection node "overlap - walls" and for the architectural and artistic design of the facade (with the designation of floors). Interfloor stepped cornice is also called interfloor profiled traction. Instead of a cornice, a corbel can be arranged between floors - a horizontal protruding element of a simple rectangular profile. When constructing interfloor cornices, the upper cornice located under the roof is called the main, or crowning, cornice. Above door or window openings small cornices called sandriks can be located. The cornice, located under the window opening, is called window sill thrust. The distance over which the cornice protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, as well as the protruding part itself, is called the overhang of the cornice.
opening- an opening in a wall or ceiling to accommodate a door, window, hatch or ladder. The top and side faces of a door or window opening are called slopes. A wall without openings is called a blank wall.
openings in brick wall lintels are sure to complete - metal or reinforced concrete (with dimensions that are multiples of the brick size) beams that support the masonry above the opening. The lintel can also be arched, while it can be made of brickwork. A straight (not arched) brick lintel is obtained only with preliminary reinforcement and using formwork.
Windows and doors (filling window and door openings) are building envelopes. Windows serve to illuminate and ventilate the premises, doors - to communicate the premises with each other and with the external environment.
overlap- a horizontal load-bearing structure supported by walls or pillars (columns) and bearing the weight of partitions, equipment, people and furniture. The enclosing role of floors is reduced to dividing the building into floors, as well as to protecting it from the external environment from below and from above. The overlap that separates two ordinary floors is called interfloor, or interfloor. The overlap that separates the first floor of the building from the basement or soil base is called the basement, or above the basement. The attic is the floor that separates the top floor from the attic. If there is no attic in the building, the upper floor performs the function of the roof structure. The floor may be a solid slab (or a combination of slabs) or a beam system. There are also overlays unusual shape: arched, vaulted, etc. In individual construction, such ceilings are a rarity in our time.
On top of the load-bearing structures of the floors on the operated floors, a floor covering is arranged from the selected material (boards, ceramic tiles, linoleum, laminate, parquet, etc.), from below - ceiling covering.
Balconies, loggias, bay windows are also architectural and structural elements of the building. The balcony is an open area protruding beyond the plane of the wall (without walls, but with a fence) at the level of one of the floors. The bay window, like the balcony, protrudes beyond the surface of the wall, but has a capital (wall) fence, which can be arranged at the level of several floors, uniting them. The loggia does not protrude from the plane outer wall and is a platform open from the side of the facade.
Brickwork the building will definitely be combined with other materials: wood, reinforced concrete, metal. Since these materials make up different structural elements of buildings and have different specifications, often between masonry and other material, high-quality thermal and waterproofing is necessary.
Roof- a set of load-bearing elements on which the coating (roof) rests, as well as this coating itself. The roof is the top waterproofing part of the roof. The load-bearing elements of the roof are trusses, rafters, beams, arches (depending on the type of construction). Roofing refers to the base under the roof (sheathing, insulating materials) And roofing(tile, slate, roofing metal etc.).
The roof performs both a load-bearing and enclosing function. The design must provide for the removal of atmospheric precipitation from the building. Water drainage can be external and internal. In individual construction, an external drainage system is most often used, consisting of gutters, funnels and pipes through which water enters storm sewer without damaging walls and foundations. Internal drainage more difficult to install, it is usually used in buildings with a flat roof and a large building area.
Roofs are flat (with a slope of up to 2.5%) and pitched. Pitched differ in the number and shape of slopes (from single-slope to complex multi-slope and domed).
Coating- enclosing element of structures, located on top of the load-bearing elements of the roof and performing the function of protection from precipitation and other environmental influences.
ventilation called a set of measures and devices necessary to ensure a given state of the air in the working premises. Among the sanitary measures, ventilation occupies one of the main places in the system of improving working conditions in the workplace. Thanks to ventilation, in many cases it is possible to achieve a reduction in the dust content of the air and its pollution with harmful gases and vapors, and to normalize microclimatic conditions.
Types of industrial ventilation
By means of air movement, ventilation is divided into natural and mechanical ventilation. Depending on the capacity of air exchange, ventilation can be local and about general exchange.
By p r i n c e ventilation units subdivided into:
1) exhaust (designed to remove air), which in turn can be local and general; 2) supply air (carry out air supply), which are subdivided into local (air showers, curtains, oases) and general (scattered or concentrated inflow).
At natural ventilation air exchange occurs due to the temperature difference, and therefore, specific gravity air inside the production facility and outside it, i.e., they work under the influence of thermal pressure and due to the influence of wind (wind pressure).
The effect of these sources is greater than more difference temperatures in the upper and lower zones of the room and the greater the height of the latter.
The temperature difference between the air inside the room (where it is higher) and outside causes the flow of cold air into the room and the displacement of warm air from it. Under the action of wind from the windward side of the building, overpressure and fresh air enters the room. A reduced pressure is created on the windward side of the building, as a result of which warm or polluted air is removed from the room. These phenomena are widely used for natural ventilation in workshops with excessive heat generation. However, large air exchanges created by natural ventilation do not always provide the proper hygienic effect.
With a large area of leaks in the external fences of industrial buildings, opening gates and doors in the cold season, due to thermal and wind pressure, drafts and hypothermia may occur. working area, and at a great distance of workplaces from the places where outside air enters in summer, on the contrary, conditions of insufficient ventilation of the working area may be created. In order to ensure normal natural ventilation, a special organization and management of air exchange is required. Natural ventilation industrial premises may be unorganized and organized.
With unorganized ventilation (ventilation), air enters and leaves through windows, vents, special openings, as well as through leaks in external fences (infiltration). Organized regulated natural ventilation of industrial premises is called aeration. It is carried out with the help of specially created structural elements. industrial buildings- aeration lamps.
In the absence of light and aeration lamps in the ceilings of buildings, natural ventilation can be somewhat improved with the help of special channels or shafts that operate under the influence of thermal pressure. To do this, the mines are equipped with special nozzles - deflectors (Fig. 13). The action of the deflectors is based on the fact that the wind, blowing around the circumference of the nozzle, creates a rarefaction in it, due to which the deflector contributes to the suction of air through the shaft. For a complete
to use the wind pressure of the mine, it is necessary to place it on the highest sections of the roof. Shafts with deflectors are used to remove polluted or overheated air from rooms of relatively small volume (cowsheds, pigsties, agricultural workshops), as well as for localized removal of hot gases from blacksmith forges, ovens, etc.
The most rational way of natural air exchange is aeration. It is used for
ventilation of workshops with large heat surpluses, contributing to the removal of not only excess heat, but with it harmful vapors and gases. Aerated buildings are equipped with three rows of openings (1-3), equipped with special transoms. In the walls of buildings, openings are arranged at two levels: at a height of 1 - 1.5 m from the floor (1) and at a height of 4-6 m from the floor (2). In the upper part of the building (usually in the ceiling), glazed light-aeration lanterns are equipped, the openings of which are equipped with transoms that can open to the required amount (3).
In summer, fresh air enters through the open lower openings (1) and is removed through the upper ones (2). For a diagram of the movement of air flows during calm, see fig. 14, a, b and in windy weather. IN winter time the intake of outside air occurs through the upper openings in the walls. The height is taken in such a way that the cold outside air, descending to the working area, has time to heat up sufficiently due to mixing with warm air premises. Thus hypothermia of workers is prevented.
Air exchange is regulated by changing the position of the transom flaps. When calculating aeration, the required area of openings is determined. The calculation is made for summer time with calm, as the most unfavorable for aeration.
The action of the wind usually favorably affects the air exchange, increasing it. However, under certain wind directions, it blows into the upper openings of the building's skylights, as a result of which the outside air flows mix with dust and gases and enter the working area. To eliminate this phenomenon, the so-called non-blown lanterns equipped with windshields are arranged. The air entering the workshop during aeration can be cooled by fine spraying of water using nozzles in the plane of the supply openings.
Evaporating, water lowers the temperature of the surrounding air and somewhat increases its humidity. The use of artificial cooling of the supply air of aeration devices is especially important in the southern regions of the country.
Aerated buildings must meet certain architectural and construction requirements. The building must be free around the perimeter to allow outside air to enter it through the aeration openings. As an exception, an extension is allowed, but not more than 40% of the length of the longitudinal walls.
Best conditions aerations are created in single-span one-story buildings of sufficient height. It is allowed to place aerated workshops in the upper floors of multi-storey buildings.
Great difficulties are encountered in the natural ventilation of multi-span buildings, the width of which can reach 100-200 m or more. Under these conditions, the supply of fresh, unpolluted air to workplaces located in the center of the room is practically impossible. In these cases, aeration is carried out through special lanterns designed by Baturin, in which the inflow and exhaust
disconnected (at the same time they are uninflated).
It should be borne in mind that aeration of multi-span buildings with inflow through openings in the roof with a small excess of heat in winter can lead to hypothermia of the working area. In such rooms, mechanical ventilation with air heating should be provided. Reliable mechanisms must be equipped to control aeration. The advantage of aeration is the possibility
implementation of large air exchanges (up to several million cubic meters at one o'clock). The device of the aeration system is cheaper than mechanical ventilation systems, but much more difficult to manage, as it depends on weather conditions: the amount of air exchange can vary significantly depending on wind speed, temperature regime inside the building and other conditions. As a result, in the summer, ventilation efficiency can be significantly reduced due to an increase in the outdoor temperature, especially in calm weather. With aeration, it is not always possible to supply fresh air to all workplaces, especially remote ones.
A serious obstacle to the use of aeration is that, along with excess heat, the air of the corresponding working rooms also contains harmful vapors, gases and aerosols, the release of which into the outside atmosphere without purification is unacceptable.
When using aeration, cleaning of ventilation air is not possible.
mechanical ventilation. Unlike natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation allows
pre-treatment of the supply air (cleaning, humidification, heating or cooling) and cleaning of dust, gases and other impurities of the exhaust air before it is released into the atmosphere. Of the other advantages of mechanical ventilation, it should be noted such as uniform operation all year round in the required volumes, regardless of the external weather and climatic conditions, as well as the possibility of supplying air to any point of the working room and removing air from any point; if necessary, the magnitude of air exchanges can be changed within significant limits.
In the fight against industrial hazards, the leading place is occupied by local mechanical exhaust ventilation. It is designed to capture and remove polluted air directly from the places of formation or exit. harmful secretions. The effectiveness of local
exhaust ventilation depends on the rational choice and perfection of the design of the local suction air inlet, the degree of shelter and the adequacy of the vacuum created by the installation, and other conditions. Elements exhaust unit are suction (air inlet), through which air is removed from the room, air ducts; fan; equipment for air purification from dust and gases; air ejection device - exhaust shaft.
What is the name of the irregularities in the earth's surface?
In fact, such a combination is called RELIEF. Moreover, the relief can be very different. If we take the entire surface of the Earth as a planet, then using the example of a globe, it is easy to make sure that its relief is a ball, or more precisely, a geoid is the shape of our planet. If you go down lower, you will see mountains and seas, depressions and hills, canyons, hills, fields, all the irregularities, which together will be the relief. The relief can be flat with a small number of irregularities, mountainous, with large differences in irregularities in height, and hilly, when the elevation difference on the ground is no more than half a kilometer.
In my unprofessional opinion, this is a relief. And I’m not entirely sure, because the relief most likely contains just the entire spectrum of evennesses, including irregularities. I hope that my first answer is still correct.
